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A BRIEF HISTORY 

OP 

MEDIEVAL AND MODERN 
PEOPLES 



WITH SOMK ACCOUNT OF THEIli IXSTITLTFONS, ARTS, 
MANNERS. ANP CITSTOMS 



BY 

JOEL DORMAN STEELE, Ph.D., F.G.S. 

AND 

ESTHER BAKER STEELE, Lit.D. 




.,-«;s^ 



Jt * ^- 



NEW YORK •:• CINCINNATI •:• CHICAGO 

AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 



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BARNES BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES, 

FOK THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND FOK PRIVATE READING. 

BARNES BRIEF HISTORY OF FRANCE, Fou the Use 

OF SCHOOLS AND FOR PRIVATE READING. 

BARNES BRIEF HISTORY OF GREECE, WITH Select 
Readings from Standard Authors. 

BARNES BRIEF HISTORY OF ROME, with Select 
Readings from Standard authors. 

BARNES BRIEF HISTORY OF ANCIENT PEOPLES, 

FOR THE Use of Schools and for Private Reading. 

BARNES BRIEF HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL AND 
MODERN PEOPLES, for the Use of Schools and 
for Private Reading. 

BARNES BRIEF GENERAL HISTORY, Ancient, Me- 

DI^VAL, AND MODERN PEOPLES. 



Copyright, 1883, hy A. S. Banies & ^O'Ocr^nMD COPY 
Copyright, 1899, hy American Book Compomy'. 



W. P. 4 







I. MEDIEVAL PEOPLES. 

PAGE 

1. Introduction 9 

2. Rise of the Saracens 20 

3. Rise of the Frankish Empire 25 

4. Rise of Modern Nations 31 

I. England 31 

II. France 48 

HI. Germany 67 

IV. Switzerland 81 

5. Italy in the Middle Ages 84 

6. The Crusades 91 

7. The Moors in Spain 98 

8. Asia in the Middle Ages 99 

9. MEDiiEVAL Civilization 102 



II. MODERN PEOPLES. 

1. Introduction 117 

2. The Sixteenth Century 124 

I. The French in Italy 124 

11. The Age of Charles V 127 

III. Rise of the Dutch Republic 139 



iv CONTENTS. 

The Sixteenth Century (Continued). page 

IV. Civil-Religious Wars of France 144 

V. England under the Tudors 149 

VI. The Civilization 161 

3. The Seventeenth Century 174 

I. The Thirty- Years' War 174 

II. France in the Seventeenth Century 180 

III. England under the Stuarts 188 

IV. The Civilization 207 

4. The Eighteenth Century 214 

I. Peter the Great and Charles XII 214 

11. Rise of Prussia: Age of Frederick the Great.. 220 

III. England under the House of Hanover 226 

IV. The French Revolution 230 

V. The Civilization 247 

5. The Nineteenth Century 253 

I. France 253 

II. England 277 

III. Germany 282 

IV. Italy 286 

V. Turkey 290 

VI. Greece 292 

VII. The Netherlands 292 

VIII. Russia 293 

IX. Japan 294 

X. China 296 

XI. Africa 297 

XII. The Spanish Colonies — South America 298 

III. APPENDIX. 

1. Historical Recreations i 

2. Index , xv 



LIST OF MAPS. 

1. Map of the Nations of Western Europe (Fifth Century) 11 

2. Map of the Empire of the Caliphs (Eighth Century) 21 

3. Map op the Empire of Charlemagne 27 

4. Map Illustrating the Four Conquests of England ... 32 

5. Map op France in the Time of Hugh Capet 51 

6. Map of Burgundy under Charles the Bold 64 

7. Map of the German Empire under the Hohenstaupens 

(including Naples and Sicily) 72 

8. Map of Syria in the Time op the Crusades 95 

9. Map of the Iberian Peninsula in the Fifteenth Century 98 

10. Map Illustrating the Great Voyages of Discovery. . . 120 

11. Map of Italy from the Fifteenth Century 125 

12. Map Illustrating the Wars in France, the Nether- 

lands, AND Civil Wars in England 141 

13. Map of Central Europe. (The Thirty-Years' and 

Seven-Years' Wars) , 175 

14. Map of Eastern Europe (Seventeenth and Eighteenth 

Centuries) 189 

15. Map of Modern Nations of Europe, Western Asia, 

AND Northern Africa 226 

16. Map of Napoleonic Wars 254 



MEDI^^YAL PEOPLES. 



" We may gather out of History a policy no less wise than eternal, by the 
comparison of other men's miseries with our own like errors." 

Sir Walter Raleigh's History of the World. 



BLACKBOARD ANALYSIS 



Introduction. 



f 1. Chief events of Middle Ages. Charactekisiics. 

I 2. GENERAL Divisions. 

I 3. THE Teutonic Settlements. 

^ 4. THE character OF THE TEUTONIC CONQUEST. 

I 5. THE Eastern Empire. 

6. The Papacy. 
I 7, Early German Civilization. 



Mohammed, 
the Caliphs. 



Extent of Empire. 



^' '^'l^ra^rL*.!'® 1 3- SARACENS IN EUROPE. 

odrdteni. | ^ saracen Divisions. 

i .5. SARACEN civilization. 

^ „. . ., (1. clovis and the Franks. Merovingian Dynasty, 
6, nise ot the j 2. Pepin the Short, carlo vingian dynasty. 
Prankish 



Empire. j 



3. Charlemagne. 



1. His Conquests. 

2. Crowned Emperor. 

3. Government. 

4. Charlemagne and his Court. 
Homan. 



The Four Conquests. 



Growth of Constitu- 
tional Liberty. 



RiseoflVlod- 
ern Nations. 



b. Anglo-Saxon. 

c. Danish. 

d. Norman. 

\ a. Bunnymede 
I and Magna 

{ Charta. 

I b. The Mouse of 
( Commons. 



Conquest of Ireland. 
Conquest of Wales. 
Conquest of Scotland. 
Wars of the Roses. 
Early English Civilization. 
Rollo and the Norsemen. 
Capet. Tlie Capetian Dynasty. 
Weakness of the Monarchy. 

( a. Philip Augustus, 
h. Louis IX. 

c. Philip IV. 

d. Louis XI. 
—Triiimph of 

[ solutisvfi. 
House of Valois. 
The Hundred- Years' War. 
The Kingdom of Burgundy. 
Consolidation of Fiench Monarchy. 
Early French Civilization. 



Growth of the 
Mouarcliy under 



Ah. 



3. Germany. 



5. Italy In the Middle Ages 



1. Comparison with France. 

2. The Saxon Dynasty. 

3. Tlie Franconian Dynasty. 

4. Tlie Hoheustaufen Line. 

5. (^reat Interregnum. 

6. The Hapsburgs. 
1. Origin. 

4. Switzerland. < 2. Three Great Battles. 

3. Growth of the Confederacy. 

Papal power. 

r 1. Venice. 
J 2. Florence. 
1 3. Naples. 
[ 4. Rome. 



f 1. 

I"- 



Italian Cities. 



The Crusades. 
The Moors in Spain. 

Asia in the Middle Ages. 



9. Medisva! Civilization. 



1-8. the Eight Crusades. 
9. Effects of the crusades. 



J 1. The isroNGOLs. 



The Turks. 
f 1. Feudalism. 
I 2. The Castle. 
I 3. Chivalry. 
{ 4. The Knight. 
I 5. The Tournament. 
I 6. Education and literature 
I 7. Manners and Customs. 



[When writing upon the 
blackboard, the pupil can fill 
out the subdivisions from the 
headings of the paragraphs in 

the text.] 



KeDl^^i^ ?^^^^& 




INTRODUCTION. 

The Middle Ages extend 
from the faU of Rome (476) 
to the capture of Constan- 
tinople (1453),— nearly 1000 
years. Their principal events 
were the migrations of the northern barbarians (Anc. Peo., 
p. 266) ; the invasion of the Saracens ; the establishment 

Geographical Questions.— These queries are inteuded to test the pupil's knowl- 
edge, to make him familiar with the maps of the middle ages, and to prepare him 
to locate the history he is about to study. See list of maps, p. v. Bound Syria, 
Arabia, Gaul, Britain, Spain, Norway, Sweden, France, Italy, Germany, Hungary, 



m SIGHT OF ROME. 



10 MEDIEVAL PEOPLES. 

of tlie Frankish kingdom, including the empire of Charle- 
magne; the rise of the modern nations; the Crusades; 
the Hundred- Years' War ; and the Wars of the Roses. The 
era was in general characterized by the decline of letters 
and art, the rise of feudalism or the rule of the nobles, and 
the supremacy of the papal power. 

Two Divisions. — Six of the ten centuries composing this 
period are called the BarU Ages, — a long night following the 
brilliant day of Roman civilization. The last four centuries 
constitute the dawn of the modern era. Wandering tribes 
then became settled nations, learning revived, and order 
and civilization began to resume their sway. 

A New Era of the world began in the 5th century. The 
gods of Greece and Rome had passed away, and a better 
religion was taking their place. The old actors had vanished 
from the stage, and strange names appeared. Europe pre- 
sented a scene of chaos. The institutions of centuries had 
crumbled. Everywhere among the ruins barbarian hordes 
were struggling for the mastery. Amid this confusion we 
are to trace the gradual outgrowth of the modern nation- 

Poland, Russia.— Locate Carthage, Jerusalem, Mecca, Damascus, Bagdad, Alex- 
andria, Acre, Tunis, Moscow, Delhi, Constantinople. 

Locate Tours, Rheims, Fontenay, Verdun, Cr6cy, Poitiers, Agincourt, Limoges, 
Calais, Rouen, Orleans, Metz, Avignon, Bordeaux.— Locate Cordova, Seville, Gra- 
nada, Castile, Aragon, Leon. 

Locate Lomhardy, Sicily, Pisa, Genoa, Rome, Florence, Milan, Naples, Venice, 
Salerno, Legnano, Padua, Bologna, Savoy. 

Locate London, Hastings, Oxford, Runnymede, Lewes, Bosworth, Dover, Ban- 
nockhurn.— Locate the Netherlands (Low Countries), Flanders, Bouvines, Courtrai, 
Ghent, Bruges, Rosebecque, Aix-la-Chapelle.— Describe the Indus, Rhine, Rhone, 
Danube, Seine, Loire.— Point out Bavaria, Saxony, Franconia, Swabia, Thuringia, 
Basle, Prague, Worms, Waiblingen. 

Point out the French provinces : Normandy, Provence, Aquitaine, Brittany, Bur- 
gundy, Champagne, Maine, Anjou, Toulouse, Valois, Navarre, Gascony, Lorraine, 
Armagnac, Alsace, Franche Comt6.— Locate Granson, Morat, Nancy, Morgarten, 
Sempach, Geneva. 




^ I X K V ^ 



/ 



12 MEDIEVAL PEOPLES. 

alities.^ Heretofore the history of one great nation has been 
that of the civilized world, changing its name only as power 
passed, from time to time, into the hands of a different 
people. Henceforth there ^re to be not one but many cen- 
ters of civilization. 

Teutonic Settlements. — The Teutons or Germans 
(p. 16) were the chief heirs of Rome. By the 6th century 
the Vandals had established a province in northern Africa; 
the Visigoths had set up a Gothic kingdom in Spain and 
southern Gaul (Anc. Peo., p. 268) ; the Franks, under Clovis, 
had firmly planted themselves in northern Gaul ; the Bur- 
giindians had occupied southeastern Gaul ; and the Anglo- 
Saxons had crossed the Channel and conquered a large part 
of Britain. 

The Ostrogoths, under Theodoric (489), climbed the Alps 
and overthrew Odoacer, King of Italy (Anc. Peo., p. 269). 
Theodoric set up his governnient at Ravenna, under a nomi- 
nal commission from the Emperor of Constantinople. The 
Visigoths accepted him as chief, and his kingdom ultimately 
extended from the heart of Spain to the Danube. An 
Ai-ian, he yet favored the Catholics, and, though unable 
to read or write, encouraged learning. "The fair-haired 
Goths," says CoUier, " still wearing theii' furs and brogues, 
carried the sword ; while the Romans, wrapped in the flow- 
ing toga, held the pen and filled the schools." 

Character of the Teutonic Conquest.- — In Italy, 

1 The thoughtful student of history sees in the middle ages a time not of decay, 
but of pieparation ; a period during which tlie seeds of a better growth were germi- 
nating in the soil. Amid feudal cliaos, the nations were being molded, language was 
forming, thouglit taking shape, and social forces were gathering that were to bear 
mankind to a higher civilization than the world liad ever seen. 

2 While the Teutonic conquest, in the end, brought into mediaeval civilization a 
new force, a sense of personal liberty, and domestic virtues unknown to the Ro- 
mans, yet, at tlie time, it seemed an undoing of the best work of ages. During the 
merciless massacre that lasted for centuries upon the island of Britain, the priests 
were slain at the altar, the churches burned, and the inhabitants nearly annihilated ; 



INTRODUCTION. 13 

Gaul, and Spain, the various Teutonic tribes did not expel, 
but absorbed, the native population. The two races gradu- 
ally blended. Out of the minghng of the German and the 
Roman speech, there grew up in time the Romance lan- 
guages, — Spanish, Itahan, and French. Latin, however, 
was for centuries used in writing. Thus the Roman names 
and forms remained after the empire had fallen. The in- 
vaders adopted the laws, civilization, and Christian religion 
of the conquered. The old clergy not only retained their 
places, but their influence was greatly increased 5 the 
churches became a common refuge, and the bishops the 
only protectors of the poor and weak. 

On the contrary, the Anglo-Saxons, who conquered Brit- 
ain, enslaved or drove back the few natives who survived 
the horrors of the invasion. Not having been, while in 
Germany, brought in contact with the Roman power, these 
Teutons had no respect for its superior civihzation. They 
did not, therefore, adopt either the Roman language or 
rehgion. Christianity came to them at a later day ; while 
the English speech is still in its essence the same that our 
forefathers brought over from the wilds of Germany. 

The Eastern, Greek, or Byzantine Empire, as it is 
variously called, was governed by effeminate princes until 
the time of Justinian (527), who won back a large part of 



while tlie Eoraan and Christian civilization was blotted out, and a barbaric rule 
set up in its place. The Vandals in Spain (Anc. Peo., p. 269) found fertile, populous 
Roman provinces; they left behind them a desert. Tlie Burgundians were the 
mildest of the Teutonic conquerors, yet wliere they settled they compelled the in- 
habitants to give up two thirds of the laud, one half of the houses, gardens, groves, 
etc., and one third of the slaves. Italy, under tlie ravages of the teirible Lombards 
and other northern hordes, became a " wilderness overgrown with brushwood and 
black with stagnant marshes." Its once cultivated fields were barren; a few miser- 
able people wandered in fear among the ruins of the churches,— their hiding-places,— 
while the land was covered with the bones of the slain. Rome became almost as 
desolate as Babylon. " The baths and temples had been spared by the barbarians, 
and the water still poured through the mighty aqueducts, but at one time there were 
not five hundred persons dwelling among the magnificent ruins." 



14 MEDIEVAL PEOPLES. 

the lost empire. His famous general, Belisarius, captured 
Cartilage,^ and overwhelmed the Vandal power in Africa. 
He next invaded Italy and took Rome, but being recalled by 
Justinian, who was envious of the popularity of his great 
general, the eunuch Narses was sent thither, and, under his 
skilful management, the race and name of the Ostrogoths 
perished. Italy, her cities pillaged and her fields laid waste, 
was now united to the Eastern Empire, and governed by 
rulers called the Exarchs of Ravenna. So Justinian reigned 
over both new and old Rome. 

The Koman Laws at this time consisted of the decrees, 
and often the chance expressions, of the threescore emperors 
from Hadrian to Justinian. They filled thousands of vol- 
umes, and were frequently contradictory. Tribonian, a cele- 
brated lawyer, was employed to bring order out of this 
chaos. He condensed the laws into a code that is still the 
basis of the civil law of Europe. 

Dm4ng this reign, two Persian monks, who had gone to 
China as Christian missionaries, brought back to Justinian 
the eggs of the silkworm concealed in a hollow cane. Silk 
manufacture was thus introduced into Europe. 

The Lombards (568), a fierce German tribe, after Jus- 
tinian's death, poured into Italy and overran the fruitful 
plain that still bears their name. For about 200 years the 
Lombard kings shared Italy with the Exarchs of Ravenna. 

The Papacy. — During these centuries of change, confu- 
sion, and ruin, the Christian Church had alone retained its 

1 Among the treasures of Carthage were tlie sacred vessels of the Temple at Jeru- 
salem taken by Titus to Rome, and tlience carried to Carthage by Genseric. As 
these relics were thoiiglit to piesage ruin to the city which kept them, they were 
now returned to the Cathedral at Jerusalem, and their subsequent fate is unknown. 
According to the legend, contradicted by many liistorians but eagerly seized by 
poets and painters, Belisarius in his old age was falsely accused of treason, degraded 
from his honors, and deprived of liis sight: often tliereafter the blind old man was 
to be seen standing at the. Cathedral door, begging "a penny for Belisarius, the 
general." 



INTRODUCTION, 



15 



organization. The barbarians, even the Lombards, — the 
most cruel of all, — were in time converted to Chi-istianity. 
The people, who, until the overthrow of the emperor, had 
been accustomed to depend upon Rome for political guid- 
ance, continued to look to the Bishop of Rome for spiritual 
control and as a natural consequence tlie Church gradually 
became the center of vast temporal power also. Thus for 
centuries the papacy (Lat. papa, a bishop) gained strength; 
the Christian fathers Ambrose, Augustine, Jerome, Gregory 
the Great, and a host of other active intellects, shaping its 
doctrines and discipline. 

The Patriarch of Constantinople also asserted the pre- 
eminence of his See, and, on account of the opposition he 
met from Rome, the Eastern or Greek Church gradually 
separated from the Western or Roman, in interest, disci- 
pline, and doctrine. 




THIi PAFAL INSIGNIA. 



16 MEDIEVAL PEOPLES. 



EARLY GERMAN CIVILIZATION. 

Two thousand years ago, in the dense forests and gloomy marshes 
of a rude, bleak land, dwelt a gigantic, white-skinned, blue-eyed, yel- 
low-haired race. 

The Men, fierce and powerful, wore over their huge bodies a short 
girdled cloak, or the skin of some wild beast, whose head, with pro- 
truding tusks or horns, formed a hideous setting for their bearded faces 
and cold, cruel eyes. Brave, hospitable, restless, ferocious, they wor- 
shiped freedom, and were ready to fight to the death for their personal 
independence. They cared much less for agriculture than for hunting, 
and delighted in war. Their chief vices were gambling and drunken- 
ness ; their conspicuous virtues were truthfulness and respect for 
women. 

The Women — massive like the men, and wooed with a marriage 
gift of war-horse, shield, and weapons — spun and wove, cared for the 
household, tilled the ground, and went with their lords to battle, where 
their shouts rang above the clash of the spear and the thud of the war- 
ax. They held religious festivals, at which no man was allowed to be 
present, and they were believed to possess a special gift of foresight ; 
yet, for all that, the Teuton wife was bought from her kindred, and 
was subject to her spouse. As priestesses, they cut the throats of war- 
captives and read portents in the flowing blood ; and after a lost battle 
they killed themselves beside their slaughtered husbands. 

The Home — when there was one — was a hut made of logs filled in 
with platted withes, straw, and lime, and covered by a thatched roof, 
which also sheltered the cattle. Here the children were reared, har- 
dened from their babyhood with ice-cold baths, given weapons for play- 
things, and for bed a bear's hide laid on the ground. Many tribes were 
such lawless wanderers that they knew not the meaning of home, and 
all hated the confinement of walled towns or cities, which they likened 
to prisons. 

Civil Institutions and Government.— Every tribe had its nobles, 
freemen, freedmen, and slaves. When there was a king, he was 
elected from a royal family, — the traditional descendants of the 
divine Woden. All freemen had equal rights and a personal voice in 
the government ; the freedman or peasant was allowed to bear arms, 
but not to vote ; the slave was classed with the beast as the absolute 
property of his owner. 

The Land belonging to a tribe was divided into districts, hun- 
dreds, and marks. The inhabitants of a mark were usually kindred, 
who dwelt on scattered homesteads and held its unoccupied lands in 



INTRODUCTION. 17 

common. The mark and the hundred, as well as the district, had each 
its own stated open-air assembly, where were settled the petty local 
disputes ; its members sat together in the tribal assembly, and fought 
side by side in battle (compare with Greeks, Anc. Peo., p. 192). 

The General Assemhhj of the tribe was also held in the open air, 
near some sacred tree, at new or full moon. Hither flocked all the 
freemen in full armor. The night was spent in noisy discussion and 
festive carousal. As the great ox-horns of ale or mead were passed 
from hand to hand, measures of gravest importance were adopted by a 
ringing clash of weapons or rejected with cries and groans, till the whole 
forest resounded with the tumult. When the din became intolerable, 
silence was proclaimed in the name of the gods. The next day the few 
who were still sober reconsidered the night's debate, and gave a final 
decision. 

The Family was the unit of German society. Every household 
was a little republic, its head being responsible to the community for 
its acts. The person and the home were sacred, and no law could 
seize a man in his own house ; in extreme cases, his well might be 
choked up, and his dwelling fired or unroofed, but no one presumed to 
break open his door. As each family redressed its own wrongs, a slain 
kinsman was an appeal to every member for vengeance. The bloody 
complications to which this system led were in later times mitigated 
by the weregeld, a legal tariff of compensations by which even a mur- 
derer (if not willful) might " stop the feud " by paying a prescribed sum 
to the injured family (p. 42). 

Fellowship in Arms. — The stubbornness with which the Ger- 
man resisted personal coercion was equaled by his zeal as a voluntary 
follower. From him came the idea of giving service for reward, which 
afterward expanded into feudalism (p. 102), and influenced European 
society for hundreds of years. In time of war, young freemen were 
wont to bind themselves together under a chosen leader, whom they 
hoisted on a shield, and thus, amid the clash of arms and smoke of 
sacrifice, formally adopted as their chief. Henceforth they rendered him 
an unswerving devotion. On the field they were his body-guard, and 
in peace they lived upon his bounty, sharing in the rewards of victory. 
For a warrior to return alive from a battle in which his leader was 
slain was a lifelong disgrace. — These voluntary unions formed the 
strength of the array. The renown of a successful chief spread to other 
tribes ; presents and embassies were sent to him ; his followers multi- 
plied, and his conquests extended until, at last, — as in the Saxon inva- 
sions of England, — he won for himself a kingdom, and made princes of 
his bravest liegemen. 

The Germans fought with clubs, lances, axes, arrows, and spears. 
They roused themselves to action with a boisterous war-song, increas- 



18 



MEDIAEVAL PEOPLES. 



ing the frightful clamor by placing their hollow shields before their 
faces. Metal armor and helmets were scarce, and shields were made 
of wood or platted twigs, l Yet when Julius Caesar crossed the Rhine, 
even his iron-clad legions did not daunt these sturdy warriors, who 
boasted that they upheld the heavens with their lances, and had 




ELEVATING ON THE SHIELD. 



not slept under a roof for years. They fiercely resisted the encroach- 
ments of their soutliern invaders, and when, at the close of the 2d 
century a. d., the emperor Commodus bought with gold the peace he 
could not win with the sword, he found that one tribe alone had taken 
fifty thousand, and another one hundred thousand, Roman prisoners. 

The Teutonic Religion encouraged bravery and even reckless- 
ness in battle, for it taught that only those who fell by the sword could 
enter Walhalla, the palace of the great god Woden, whither they 

1 What they lacked in armor they made up in pluck and endurance. When the 
Cimhri invaded Italy by way of the Tyrol (102 B. c), they stripped their huge bodies 
and plunged into the frozen snow, or, sitting on their gaudy shields, coasted down 
the dangerous descents with shouts of savage laughter, while the Romans in the 
passes below looked on in wondering dismay. 



INTRODUCTION. 19 

mounted on the rainbow, and where they fought and feasted forever. 
Those who died of illness or old age went to a land of ice and fogs. 
The gods — including the sun, moon, and other powers of nature — were 
worshiped in sacred groves, on heaths and holy mountains, or under 
single gigantic trees. Human sacrifices were sometimes offered ; but 
the favorite victim, as in ancient Persia, was a horse, the flesh of which 
was cooked and eaten by the worshipers. In later times the eating of 
horseflesh became a mark of distinction between heathen and Christian. 
Our week-days perpetuate the names under which some of the chief 
Teutonic gods were known. Thus we have the Sun-dsbj, the Moon-day , 
TiiPs day, Woden^s day, Thorns day, Freija-da.y, and Sceter-daj. 

Agriculture, Arts, and Letters.— Among the forests and the 
marshes of Germany, the Romans found cultivated fields and rich pas- 
tures. There were neither roads nor bridges, but for months in the 
year the great rivers were frozen so deeply that an army could pass on 
the ice. From the iron in the mountains the men made domestic, 
farming, and war utensils, and from the flax in the field the women 
spun and wove garments. There were rude plows for the farm, chariots 
for religious rites, and cars for the war-march ; but beyond these few 
simple arts, the Germans were little better than savages. — The time of 
Christ was near. Over four centuries had passed since the brilliant 
age of Pericles in Athens, and three centuries since the founding of 
the Alexandrian library ; Virgil and Horace had laid down their pens, 
and Livy was still at work on his closely written parchments ; Rome, 
rich in the splendor of the Augustan age, was founding libraries, es- 
tablishing museums, and bringing forth poets, orators, and statesmen ; 
yet the gi'eat nation whose descendants were to include Goethe, 
Shakspere, and Mendelssohn, had not a native book, knew nothing of 
writing, and shouted its savage war-song to the uproar of rude drums 
and great blasts on the painted horns of a wild bull. 

The Germans in Later Times.— Before even the era of the 
Great Migration (Anc. Peo., p. 266), the fifty tribes had become united 
in vast confederations, chief among which were the Saxons, AUemanni, 
Burgundians, Goths, Franks, Vandals, and Longobards (Lombards). 
Led sometimes by their hard forest fare, sometimes by the love of ad- 
venture, they constantly sent forth their surplus population to attack 
and pillage foreign lands. For centuries Germany was like a hive 
whence ever and anon swarmed vast hordes of hardy warriors, who set 
out with their families and goods to find a new home. Legions of 
German soldiers were constantly enlisted to fight under the Roman 
eagles. The veterans returned home with new habits of thought and 
life. Their stories of the magnificence and grandeur of the Mistress of 
the World excited the imagination and kindled the ardor of their lis- 
teners. Gradually the Roman civilization and the glory of the Roman 



20 



MEDIEVAL PEOPLES, 



name accomplished what the sword had failed to effect. Around the 
forts along the Rhine, cities grew np, snch as Mayence, Worms, Baden, 
Cologne, and Strasburg. The frontier provinces slowly took on the 
habits of luxurious Rome. Merchants came thither with the rich 
fabrics and ornaments of the south and east, and took thence amber, 
fur, and human hair, — for, now that so many Germans had acquired 
fame and power in the imperial army, yellow wigs had become the 
Roman fashion. Commerce thus steadily filtered down through the 
northern forests, until at last it reached the Baltic Sea. 




GKOUP OF ANCIENT ARMS. 



RISE OF THE SARACENS OR ARABS. 

Mohammed. — Now for the first time since the over- 
throw of Carthage (Anc. Peo., p. 235), a Semitic people 
comes to the front in history. Early in the 7th century 
there arose in Ai-abia a reformer named Mohammed/ who 



1 Mohammed, or Mahomet, was born at Mecca about 570 A. D. Left an orphan at 
an early age, he became a camel-driver, and finally entered the service of a rich 
■widow named Khadijah. Slie was so pleased with his fidelity, that she offered him 
her hand, although she was forty, and he but twenty-five, years old. He was now 
free to indulge his taste for meditation, and often retired to the desert, spending 
whole nights in reverj"-. At tlie age of foity— a mystic number in the East— he de- 
clared that the angel Gabriel had appeared to him in a vision, commissioning him to 
preach a new faith. Khadijah was his first convert. After a time he publicly re- 
nounced idol-worship, and proclaimed himself a prophet. Persecution waxed hot, 
and he was forced to flee for his life. This era is known among the Moslems 
as the Hegira. Mohammed now took refuge in a cave. His enemies came to the 
mouth, but, seeing a spider's web across the entrance, passed on in pursuit. The 
fugitive secured an asylum in Medina, where the new faith spread ^apidl^^ and Mo- 
hammed soon found himself at the head of an army. Full of courage and enthusiasm, 
he aroused his followers to a fanatical devotion. Thus, in the battle of Muta, Jaafer, 



RISE OF THE SARACENS, 



21 



taught a new religion. Its substance was, "There is but 
one God, and Mohammed is his prophet." Converts were 
made by force of arms. " Paradise/' said Mohammed, '' will 
be found in the shadow of the crossing of swords." The 
only choice given the vanquished was the Koran, tribute, or 
death. Before the close of his stormy life (632), the green- 
robed warrior-prophet had subdued the scattered tribes of 
Arabia, destroyed their idols, and united the people in one 
nation. 




The Caliphs, or successors of Mohammed, rapidly fol- 
lowed up the triumphs of the new faith. Syria and Palestine 
were conquered. When Jerusalem opened its gates, Omar, 
the second caliph, stern and ascetic, rode thither from Me- 
dina upon a red-haired camel, carrying a bag of rice, one 
of dates, and a leathern bottle of water. The mosque bear- 



when his right hand was struck off, seized the banner in his left, and, when the left 
was severed, still embraced the flag with the bleeding stumps, keeping liis place till 
he was pierced by fifty wounds.— Mohammed made known his doctrines in fragments, 
which his followers wrote upon sheep-bones and palm-leaves. His successor, Abou 
Beker, collected these so-called revelations into the Koran,— the sacred book of the 
Mohammedans. 



22 MEDIEVAL PEOPLES. [668. 

ing his name still stands on the site of the ancient Temple. 
Persia was subdued, and the religion of Zoroaster nearly 
extinguished. Forty-six years after Mohammed's flight 
from Mecca, the scimiters of the Saracens were seen from 
the walls of Constantinople. During one siege of seven 
years (668-675), and another of thirteen months, nothing 
saved new Rome but the torrents of Greek fire^ that 
poinded from its battlements. Meanwhile, Egypt fell, and, 
after the capture of Alexandria, the flames of its four thou- 
sand baths 2 were fed for six months with the priceless man- 
uscripts from the library of the Ptolemies. Still westward 
through northern Africa the Arabs made their way, until at 
last their leader spurred his horse into the waves of the 
Atlantic, exclaiming, " Be my witness, God of Mohammed, 
that earth is wanting to my courage, rather than my zeal in 
thy service ! " 

Saracens invade Europe. — In 711 the turbaned Mos- 
lems crossed the Strait of Gibraltar. Spain was quickly 
overrun, and a Moorish^ kingdom finally established that 
lasted until the year of the discovery of America (p. 99). 
The Mohammedan leader boasted that he would yet preach 
in the Vatican at Rome, and capture Constantinople, then, 
having overthrown the Roman Empire and Christianity, 
he would return to Damascus and lay his victorious 
sword at the feet of the caliph. Soon the fearless riders 
of the desert poured through the passes of the Pyrenees 
and devastated southern Gaul. But on the plain of Tours 

1 This consisted of naphtha, sulphur, and pitch. It was often hurled in red-hot, 
hollow balls of iron, or blown tlirough copper tubes fancifully shaped in imitation of 
savage monsters, that seemed to vomit forth a stream of liquid fire. 

2 Gibbon rejects this story: but the current statement is that Omar declared, " If 
the manuscripts agree with the Koran, tliey are useless ; if they disagree, they should 
be destroyed." 

3 The Saracens in Spain are usually called Moors,— a term originally applied to the 
dark-colored natives of northern Africa. 



732.] 



RISE OF THE SARACENS, 



23 



(732) the Saracen host met the Franks (p. 25). On the 
seventh day of the fnrious struggle the Cross triumphed 
over the Crescent, and Europe was saved. Charles, the 
leader of the Franks, received henceforth the name of Mar- 
tel (the hammer) for the valor with which he pounded the 







CHARLES MARTEL AT THE BATTLE OF TOURS. 

Infidels on that memorable field. The Moslems never ven- 
tured northward again, and ultimately retired behind the 
barriers of the Pyrenees. 

Extent of the Arab Dominion. — Exactly a century 
had now elapsed since the death of Mohammed, and the 
Saracen rule reached from the Indus to the Pyrenees. No 
empire of antiquity had such an extent. Only Greek fire on 
the East, and German valor on the West, had prevented the 
Moslem power from girdling the Mediterranean. 

Saracen Divisions. — For a time this vast empire held 



24 MEDIEVAL PEOPLES. [800. 

together, and one caliph was obeyed alike in Spam and in 
Sinde. But disputes arose concerning the succession, and 
the empire was divided between the Ommiades, — descendants 
of Omar, — who reigned at Cordova, and the Ahhassides, — 
descendants of the prophet's uncle, — ^who located their capi- 
tal at Bagdad. 

The year 800, when Charlemagne was crowned emperor 
at Rome (p. 27), saw two rival emperors among the Chris- 
tians, and two rival caliphs among the Mohammedans. As 
the Germans had before this pressed into the Roman Empire, 
so now the Turks invaded the Arab Empu*e. The Caliph 
of Bagdad formed his body-guard of Turks, — a pohcy that 
proved as fatal as enhsting the Goths into the legions of 
Rome, for the Turks eventually stripped the caliphs of 
their possessions in Asia and Africa. As the Teutons took 
the religion of the Romans, so also the Turks accepted the 
faith of the Arabs ; and as the Franks ultimately became 
the vahant supporters of Christianity, so the Turks became 
the ardent apostles of the Koran. 



Saracen Civilization. — The furious fanaticism of the Arabs 
early changed into a love for the arts of peace. Omar, with his leathern 
bottle and bag of dates, was followed by men who reigned in palaces 
decorated with arabesques and adorned with flower-gardens and foun- 
tains. The caliphs at Cordova and Bagdad became rivals in luxury 
and learning, as well as in politics and religion. Under the fostering 
care of Haroun al Raschid, the hero of the " Arabian Nights " and con- 
temporary of Charlemagne, Bagdad became the home of poets and 
scholars. The Moors in Spain erected structures whose magnificence 
and grandeur are yet attested by the ruins of the Mosque of Cordova 
and the Palace of the Alhambra. The streets of the cities were paved 
and lighted. The houses were frescoed and carpeted, warmed in 
winter by furnaces, and cooled in summer by perfumed air. 

Amid the ignorance which enveloped Europe during the dark ages, 
the Saracen Empire was dotted over with schools, to which students 
resorted from all parts of the world. There were colleges in Mongolia, 
Tartary, Persia, Mesopotamia, Syria, Morocco, Fez, and Spain. The 



RISE OF THE FRANKISH EMPIRE. 25 

vizier of a sultan consecrated 200,000 pieces of gold to found a college 
at Bagdad. A physician declined to go to Bokhara, at the invitation 
of the sultan, on the plea that his private library would make four 
hundred camel-loads. Great public libraries were collected, — one at 
Cairo being said to number 100,000 volumes, and the one of the Spanish 
caliphs, 600,000. 

In science the Arabs adopted the inductive method of Aristotle 
(Anc. Peo., p. 176), pushing their experiments into almost every line 
of study. They originated chemistry, discovering alcohol and nitric 
and sulphuric acids. They understood the laws of falling bodies, of 
specific gravity, of the mechanical powers, and the general principles 
of light. They applied the pendulum to the reckoning of time ; ascer- 
tained the size of the earth by measuring a degree of latitude ; made 
catalogues of the stars ; introduced the game of chess ; employed in 
mathematics the Indian method of numeration ; gave to algebra and 
trigonometry their modern forms ; brought cotton manufacture into 
Europe ; invented the printing of calico with wooden blocks ; and forged 
the Damascus and Toledo scimiters, whose temper is still the wonder 
of the world. 

RISE OF THE FRANKISH EMPIRE. 

The Franks, a German race, laid the foundation of 
France and Germany, and during nearly four centuries their 
history is that of both these countries. The conversion to 
Christianity of their chieftain Clovis was the turning-point in 
their career. In the midst of a great battle, he invoked the 
God of Clotilda, his wife, and vowed, if victorious, to em- 
brace her faith. The tide of disaster turned, and the grate- 
ful king, with three thousand of his bravest warriors, was 
soon after baptized at Rheims (496). The whole power of 
the Church was now enlisted in his cause, and he rapidly 
pushed his triumphal arms to the Pyrenees. He fixed his 
capital at Paris, and estabhshed the Merovingian, or first 
Prankish dynasty (Brief Hist. France, p. 13). 

The Descendants of Clovis were at first mcked, then 
weak, until finally all power fell into the hands of the prime 
minister, or Mayor of the Palace. We have already heard 



26 ' MEDIEVAL PEOPLES. [732. 

of one of these mayors, Charles Martel, at Tours. His son, 
Pepin the Short, after his accession to office, was determined 
to be 'king in name as well as in authority. He deposed 
Childeric, — the last of the ''do-nothing" monarchs, — and 
Pope Stephen the Third confirmed, by his apostolical author- 
ity, both the deposition and the Carlovingian claim to the 
throne. This done, Pepin was lifted on a shield, and made 
king. Thus the Carlovingian, or second Frankish dynasty, 
was established (752). At the request of the Pope, then 
hard pressed by the Lombards, Pepin crossed the Alps and 
conquered the province of Ravenna, which he gave to the 
Holy See. This donation was the origin of the temporal 
powder of the Pope, which lasted 1115 years. 

With Charlemagne (Charles the Great), Pepin's son, 
began a new era in the history of Europe. His plan was to 
unite the fragments of the old Roman Empire. To effect 
this, he used two powerful sentiments, — patriotism and re- 
ligion. Thus, while he cherished the institutions which 
the Teutons loved, he protected the Church, and carried 
the cross at the head of his army. He undertook fifty- 
three expeditions against twelve different nations. Gauls, 
Saxons, Danes, Saracens,^ — all felt the prowess of his arms. 
Entering Italy, he defeated the Lombards, and placed upon 
his own head their famous iron crown. After thirty-three 
years of bloody war, his scepter was acknowledged from the 
German Ocean to the Adriatic, and from the Channel to the 
Lower Danube. His renown reached the far East, and 
Haroun al Raschid sought his friendship, sending him an 

1 While Charlemagne's army, on its return from Spain, was passing through tlie 
narrow pass of Roncesvalles, the rear-guard was attacked by the Basques. According 
to tradition, Roland, the Paladin, long refused to blow his horn for aid, and only with 
his dying breath signaled to Charlemagne, who returned too late to save his gal- 
lant comrades. " Centuries have passed since that fatal day, but the Basque peasant 
still sings of Roland and Charlemagne, and still the traveler seems to see the long 
line of white turbans and swarthy faces winding slowly through the woods, and of 
Arab spear-heads glittering in the sun." 



800.] 



RISE OF THE FRANKISH EMPIRE. 



27 



elephant (an animal never before seen by the Franks), and 
a clock which struck the hours. 

Charlemagne crowned Emperor.— On Christmas 
Day, 800, as Charlemagne was bending in prayer before the 
high altar of St. Peter's at Rome, Pope Leo unexpectedly 




Boundary of Empire of Charhmagne 
Division of ' ' < < 

Biiundaries of Ine Seven Kingdoms ^ 



hj Treaty of Verdun ^ + + +^ 
+ -1- and and 



MAP OF THE KMIMKE OF CIIAULEMAGNE. 



placed on his head the crown of the Cgesars. The Western 
Empire was thus restored ; the old empire was finally divided ; 
there were two emperors, — one at Rome, and one at Constan- 
tinople 5 and from this time the Roman emperors were 
"Kings of the Franks." They hved very little at Rome, 



28 MEDIAEVAL PEOPLES. [768-814. 

however, and spoke German, Latin being the language only 
of religion and government. 




CI I A ItLE JI AU N E Cl:0 W N K D. 



Government.— -Charlemagne sought to oi-ganize by law 
the various peoples he had conquered by the sword. His 
vast empire was divided into districts governed by counts. 
Royal delegates visited each district four times a year, to 
redress grievances and administer justice. Diets took the 
place of the old German armed assemblies, and a series of 
capitularies was issued, containing the laws and the advice 
of the emperor. But the work of Charlemagne's life per- 
ished with him. 

A Division of the Frankish Empire. — His feeble 
son Louis quickly dissipated this vast inheritance among his 
children. They quarreled over their respective shares, and 
after Louis's death fought out their dispute on the field of 
Fontenay. This dreadful "Battle of the Brothers" was fol- 



843.] 



RISE OF THE PRANKISH EMPIRE. 



29 



lowed by the Treaty of Verdun (843), which divided the 
empire among them. 

Beginnings of France and Germany. — Lothaue's 
kingdom was called after him Lotharingia, and a part of it 
is still known as Lorraine. Lonis's kingdom was termed 
East Frankland, but the word Deutsch (German) soon 
came into use, and Germany in 1843 celebrated its 1000th 
anniversary, dating from the Treaty of Verdun. Charles's 
kingdom was styled West Frankland (Lat. Francia, whence 
the word France) ; its monarch still clung to his Teutonic 
dress and manners, but the separation from Germany was 
fairly accomplished ; the two countries spoke different lan- 
guages, and Charles the Bald is ranked as the first king 
of France. 

Thus, during the 9th century, the map of Europe began 
to take on something of its present appearance, and for the 
first time we may venture to use the geographical divisions 
now familiar to us, though they were still far from having 
their present meaning. 

Charlemagne and his 
Court. — In person, dress, 
speech, and tone of mind, 
Charlemagne was a true 
German. Large, erect, mus- 
cular, with a clear eye and 
dignified but gracious man- 
ner, his shrill voice and 
short neck were forgotten 
in the general grandeur of 
his presence. Keeii to de- 
tect, apt to understand, pro- 
found to grasp, and quick 
to decide, he impressed all 
who knew him with a sense 
of his power. Like his rude 
ancestors of centuries be- 
fore, he was hardy in his 




CHARLEMAGNE. 



30 MEDIEVAL PEOPLES. 

habits, and unconcerned about his dress ; but, unlike them, he was 
strictly temperate in food and drink. Drunkenness he abhorred. In 
the industrial schools which he established, his own daughters were 
taught to work, and the garments he commonly wore were woven by 
their hands. He discouraged extravagance in his courtiers, and once 
when hunting, — he in simple Frankish dress and sheepskin cloak, 
they in silk and tinsel-embroidered robes, — he led them through mire 
and brambles in the midst of a furious storm of wind and sleet, and 
afterward obliged them to dine in their torn and bedraggled fineries. 
Twice in his life he wore a foreign dress, and that was at Rome, where 
he assumed a robe of purple and gold, encircled his brow with jewels, 
and decorated even his sandals with precious stones. His greatest 
pride was in his sword, Joyeuse, the handle of which bore his signet, 
and he was wont to say, " With my sword I maintain all to which I 
afi&x my seal." Generous to his friends, indulgent to his children, and 
usually placable to his enemies, his only acts of cruelty were perpe- 
trated on the Saxons. They, true to the Teutonic passion for liberty, 
for thirty-three years fought and struggled against him ; and, though 
by his orders forty-five hundred were beheaded in one day, they con- 
tinued to rebel till hopelessly subdued. 

The Imperial Palaces were magnificent, and the one at Aix-la- 
Chapelle was so luxurious that people called it ''Little Rome." It 
contained extensive halls, galleries, and baths for swimming, — an art 
in which Charlemagne excelled, — mosaic pavements and porphyry 
pillars from Ravenna, and a college, library, and theater. There were 
gold and silver tables, sculptured drinking-cups, and elaborately carved 
wainscoting, while the courtiers, dressed in gay and richly wrought 
robes, added to the brilliancy of the surroundings. Charlemagne 
gave personal attention to his different estates ; he prescribed what 
trees and flowers should grow in his gardens, what meat and vege- 
tables should be kept in store, and even how the stock and poultry 
should be fed and housed. 

The College at Aix-la-ChapeUe was presided over by Alcuin, an 
Anglo-Saxon monk whom Charlemagne had invited to his court, — for 
he surrounded himself with scholars rather than warriors. With his 
learned favorites and royal household the Great King devoted himself 
to science, belles-lettres, music, and the languages, and became, next 
to Alcuin, the best-educated man of the age. It was an arousing of 
literature from a sleep of centuries, and while Alcuin explained the 
theories of Pythagoras, Aristotle, and Plato, or quoted Homer, Virgil, 
and Pliny, the delighted listeners were fired with a passion for learn- 
ing. In their enthusiasm they took the names of their classical 
favorites, and Homer, Pindar, Virgil, Horace, and Calliope sat down 
together in the Frankish court, the king himself appearing as the royal 



RISE OF MODERN NATIONS — ENGLAND. 31 

Hebrew, David. Besides this court school, Charlemagne organized at 
Paris the first European university, established academies throughout 
the empire, and required that every monastery which he founded or 
endowed should support a school. He encouraged the copying of 
ancient manuscripts, and corrected the text of the Greek gospels. Like 
Pliny, he had books read to him at meals, — St. Augustine being his 
favorite author, — and, like Pisistratus, he collected the scattered frag- 
ments of the ancient national poetry. He even began a German gram- 
mar, an experiment which was not repeated for hundreds of years. 
Yet, though he mastered Latin, read Greek and some oriental lan- 
guages, delighted in astronomy, attempted poetry, and was learned in 
rhetoric and logic, this great king stumbled on the simple art of writ- 
ing ; and, though he kept his tablets under his pillow that he might 
press every waking moment into service, the hand that could so easily 
wield the ponderous iron lance was conquered by the pen. 

Wonderful indeed was the electricity of this powerful nature, the 
like of which had not been seen since the day of Julius CaBsar, and was 
not to reappear until the day of Charles V. But no one man can make 
a civilization. ''In vain," says Duruy, ''did Charlemagne kindle the 
flame ; it was only a passing torch in the midst of a profound night. 
In vain did he strive to create commerce and trace with his own hand 
the plan of a canal to connect the Danube and the Rhine ; the ages of 
commerce and industry were yet far distant. In vain did he unite 
Germany into one vast empire ; even while he lived he felt it breaking 
in his hands. And this vast and wise organism, this revived civiliza- 
tion, all disappeared with him who called it forth." 



RISE OF MODERN NATIONS. 

We now enter upon the early political history of the prin- 
cipal European nations, and shall see how, amid the darkness 
of the middle ages, the foundations of the modern states 
were slowly laid. 

I. ENGLAND. 

The Four Conquests of England.— (1) Roman Con- 
quest — About a century after Caesar's invasion, Agricola 
reduced Britain to a Roman province. Walls were built to 
keep back the Highland Celts ; paved roads were constructed ; 
fortified towns sprang up j the Britons became Christians ; 



32 



MEDIEVAL PEOPLES. 



[410. 



and the young natives learned to talk Latin, wear the toga, 
and frequent the bath. 

(2) Anglo-Saxon Conquest. — While Alaric was thunder- 
ing at the gates of Rome ( Anc. Peo., p. 267), the legions were 
recalled to Italy. The wild Celts of the north now swarmed 
over the deserted walls, and ravaged the country. The 
Britons, in their extremity, appealed to Horsa and Hen- 




TIME OF NORMAN CONQUEST 

Med — Saxon IJeptarc 



THE FOUK CONQUESTS OF ENGLAND. 



gist, two German adventurers then cruising off their coast. 
These di'ove back the Celts, rewarding themselves by seizing 
the land they had delivered. Fresh bands of Teutons — 
chiefly Angles (English) and Saxons — followed, dri\^ng the 
remaining Britons into Wales. The petty Pagan kingdoms 



827.] RISE OF MODERN NATIONS — ENGLAND. 33 

which the Germans established (known as the Saxon Hep- 
tarchy) were continually at war, but Christianity was reintro- 
duced by St. Augustine,^ and they were finally united in 
one nation (827) by King Ugherf, a contemporary and friend 
of Charlemagne. 

(3) Banish Conquest. — During the 9th century, England, 
like France (p. 48) and Germany, was ravaged by hordes of 
northern pirates. In their light boats they ascended the 
rivers, and, landing, seized horses and scoured the country, to 
plunder and slay. Mercy seemed to them a crime, and they 
destroyed all they could not remove. The Danish invaders 
were finally beaten back by Egbert's grandson,'^ Alfred the 
Great (871-901), and order was restored, so that, according 
to the old chroniclers, a bracelet of gold could be left hang- 
ing by the roadside without any one daring to touch it. 
A century later the Northmen came in greater numbers, 
bent on conquering the country, and the Danish king 
Canute (Knut) ^ won the Enghsh crown (1017). 

(4) Norman Conquest. — The English soon tired of the 
reckless rule of Canute's sons, and caUed to the throne 
Edward the Confessor (1042), who belonged to the old 



1 Gregory, when a deacon, was once attracted by the beauty of some light-haired 
boys in the Roman slave-market. Being told that they were Angles, he replied, 
" Not Angles, but angels." When he became Pope, he remembered the fair cap- 
tives, and sent a band of monks under St. Augustine as missionaries to England. 
They landed on the same spot where Hengist had nearly 150 years before. 

2 The early chronicles abound in romantic stories of this "best of England's 
kings." While a fugitive from tlie Danes, he took refuge in the hut of a swineherd. 
One daj' the housewife had him turn some cakes that were baking upon the hearth. 
Absorbed in thought, the young king forgot his task. When the good woman 
returned, finding the cakes burned, she roundly scolded him for his carelessness. 

3 Manj^ beautiful legends illustrate the character of this wonderful man. One 
day his courtiers told him tliat his power was so great that even the sea obeyed him. 
To rebuke tliis foolish flattery, the king seated himself by the shore, and ordered the 
waves to retire. But the tide rose higher and higher, until finally the surf dashed 
over his person. Turning to his flatterers, he said, "Ye see now Jiow weak is the 
power of kings and of all men. Honor then God only, and serve Him, for Him do all 
things obey." On going back to Winchester, he hung his crown over the crucifix on 
the high altar, and never wore it again. 



34 MEDIiEVAL PEOPLES. [1066. 

Saxon line. On his death, Harold was chosen king. But 
William, Duke of Normandy (p. 50), claimed that Edward 
had promised him the succession, and that his cousin, Harold, 
had ratified the pledge. A powerful Norman army accord- 
ingly invaded England. Harold was slain in the battle of 
Hastings, and on Christmas Day, 1066, William was crowned 
in Westminster Abbey as King of England. 

The following table contains the names of the English kings from 
the time of the Conquest to the end of the middle ages. The limits of 
this history forbid a description of their separate reigns, and permit 
only a consideration of the events that, during this period of fom- cen- 
turies, were conspicuous in the ''making of England." 



WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR (1066-87). 

I 



I I I 

William rufus (1087-1100). Henry beauclehc adela, m. Stephen 

(1100-35). of Blois. 

I 

STEPHEN (1135-54). 



Matilda, m. Geoffrey 

PLANTAGENET Of AlljOU. 

I 



I 
HENRY II. (1154-89). 

I 



I I 

RICHARD CCEUR DE LION (1189-99). JOHN (1199-1216). 



HENRY III. (1216-72). 
EDWARD I. (1272-1307). 

Edward II. (1307-27). 

I 

EDWARD III. (1327-77). 

I 



Oh 



LIONEL, DUKE OF CLARENCE EDWARD THE BLACK PRINCE. 

, I (Third son Of Edward III.). | 

^ I RICHARD II. (1377-99). 



JOHN OF GHENT, J ^^^^^^ ^^^^ ^j ^^^^^.^ jjj 



Duke of Lancaster 

I 
HENRY IV. (1399-1413). 

HENRY V. (1413-22). 
< I I 

,^ [ HENRY VI. (1422-61). 



^iA f Edward IV. (1461-83). Descendant of Lionel, third son of Edward III. 

Dp I I 

O*^ { Edward V. (1483). With his brother Richard, murdered in the Tower. 

Wfe i 
O L RICHARD III. (1483-8.5). Youngest brother of Edward IV. Fell at Bosworth. 



RISE OF MODERN NATIONS — ENGLAND. 



35 



Results of the Norman Conauest. — William took 
advantage of repeated revolts of tlie English to conquer the 
nation thoroughly, to establish the feudal system ^ in Eng- 
land, and to confiscate most of the large domains and confer 

them upon his follow- 
ers. Soon every office 
in Church and State 
was filled by the Nor- 
mans. Castles were 
erected, where the new 
nobles lived and lorded 
it over then- poor Saxon 
dependants. Crowds 
of Norman workmen 
and traders flocked 
across the Channel. 
Thus there were two 
peoples living in Eng- 
land side by side. 
But the Normans were 
kinsfolk of the English, 
being Teutons with 
only a French veneer, 
and the work of union began speedily. Henry I., the Con- 
queror's son, married the niece of Edgar Atheling, — the last 
of the Saxon princes ; while, from the reign of Henry H., ties 
of kmdred and trade fast made Normans and Englishmen 
indistinguishable. Finally, in Edw^ard L, England had a 
king who was English at heart. 

At fii'st there were two languages spoken ; the Norman 
being the fashionable tongue, and the Saxon the common 




WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR. 



1 The pupil should here carefully read the sections on feudalism, etc., p. 102, 
in order to understand the various feudal terms used in the text. 



36 MEDIEVAL PEOPLES. 

speech ; but slowly, as the two peoples combined, the two 
languages coalesced. 

From time to time many of the English took to the woods 
and lived as outlaws, like the famous Robin Hood in the 
days of Richard I. But the sturdy Saxon independence and 
the Norman skill and learning gradually blended, giving to 
the English race new Uf e and enterprise, a firmer government, 
more systematic laws, and more permanent institutions. 

The Saxon weapon was the battle-ax- the Norman gen- 
tleman fought on horseback with the spear, and the footman 
with bow and arrow. Less than three centuries found the 
English yeoman on the field of Crecy (p. 55), under Edward 
III. and the Black Prince, overwhelming the French with 
shafts from their longbows, while the English knight was 
armed cap-a-pie, with helmet on head, and lance in hand. 

William, though King of England, still held Normandy, 
and hence remained a vassal of the King of France. This 
complication of English and French interests became a 
fruitful source of strife. The successors of Hugh Capet 
(p. 50) were forced to fight a vassal more powerful than 
themselves, while the EngUsh sovereigns sought to dismem- 
ber and finally to conquer France. Long and bloody wars 
were waged. Nearly five centuries elapsed before the Eng- 
lish monarchs gave up their last stronghold in that country, 
and were content to be merely British kings." 

Growth of Constitutional Liberty.— 1. Runny mede 
and Magna CJiarfa. — William the Concjueror easily curbed 
the powerful English vassals whom he created. But during 
the disturbances of succeeding reigns the barons acquired 
great power, and their castles became mere robbers' nests, 
whence they plundered the common people without mercy. 
The people now sided with the Crown for protection. 
Henry II. established order, reformed the law-courts, organ- 



1215.] RISE OF MODERN NATIONS — ENGLAND. 37 

ized an army, destroyed many of the castles of the tjTannical 
nobles, and created new barons, who, being English, were 
ready to make common cause with the nation. Unfortu- 
nately, Henry alienated the affections of his people by his 
long quarrel with Thomas a Becket, who, as a loyal English 
priest, stood up for the rights of the Church, — through the 
middle ages the refuge of the people, — and opposed to the 
death the increasing power of the Norman king. Henry's 
son John brought matters to a crisis by his brutality and 
exactions. He imposed taxes at pleasiu^e, wi-onged the poor, 
and plundered the rieh.^ At last the patience of peasant 
and noble alike was exhausted, and the whole nation rose up 
in insurrection. The barons marched with their forces 
against the king, and at Runnymede (1215) compelled him 
to grant the famovis Great Charter (Magna Charta). 

Henceforth the king had no right to demand money when 
he pleased, nor to imprison and punish Avhoni he pleased. 
He was to take money only when the barons granted the 
privilege for pubhc purposes, and no freeman was to be pun- 
ished except when his countrymen judged him guilty of 
crime. The courts were to be open to aU, and justice was 
not to be " sold, refused, or delayed." The serf, or villein, 
was to have his plow free from seizure. The Church was 
secured against the interference of the king. No class was 
neglected, but each obtained some cherished right. 

Magna Charta ever since has been the foundation of Eng- 
lish hberty, and, as the kings w^ere always trying to break it, 
they have been compelled, during succeeding reigns, to con- 
firm its provisions thirty-six times. 

2. House of Commons. — Henry HI., foolishly fond of for- 
eign favorites, yielded to their advice, and lavished upon 

1 At one time, it is said, he threw into prison a wealthy Jew, Avho refused to give 
him an enormous sum of monej-, and pulled out a tooth every day until the tortured 
Hebrew paid the required amount. 



38 MEDIEVAL PEOPLES. [13th cent. 

tliem large sums of money. Once more the barons rose in 
arms, and under the lead of Simon de Montfort, Earl of 
Leicester, — a Frenchman by birth, but an Englishman in 
feeling, — defeated the king at Lewes. Earl Simon thereupon 
called together the Parliament, summoning, besides the 
barons, two knights from each connty, and two citizens 
from each city or borongh, to represent the freeholders 
(1265). From this beginning, the English Parliament soon 
took on the form it has since retained, of two assemblies, — 
the House of Lords and the Honse of Commons. By de- 
grees it was estabhshed that the Commons should have the 
right of petition for redress of grievances, and the sole power 
of voting taxes. 

The 13th century is thus memorable in English history for 
the granting of Magna Charta and the forming of the House of 
Commons. 

Conquest of Ireland begun. — Henry IL, having ob- 
tained permission from the Pope to invade Ireland, author- 
ized an army of adventurers to overrun that island. In 
1171 he visited Ireland, and his sovereignty was generally 
acknowledged. Henceforth the country was under Enghsh 
rule, but it remained in disorder, the battle-ground of Irish 
chiefs, and Norman-descended lords who became as savage 
and lawless as those whom they had conquered. 

Conquest of Wales (1283).— The Celts had long pre- 
served their liberty among the mountains of Wales and 
Scotland. Edward I.'s ambition was to rule over the whole 
of the island. When Llewellyn, the Welsh chieftain, refused 
to yield him the usual homage, he invaded the country and 
annexed it to England. To propitiate the Welsh, he prom- 
ised them a native-born king who could not speak a word of 
English, and thereupon presented them his son, born a few 
days before in the Welsh castle of Caernarvon. The young 



1283.] RISE OF MODERN NATIONS — ENGLAND. 39 

Edward was afterward styled the Prince of Wales, — a title 
ever since borne by the sovereign's oldest son. 

Conquest of Scotland. — Edward I., ha\dng been chosen 
umpire between two claimants for the Scottish throne, — 
Robert Bruce and John Baliol, — decided in favor of the 
latter. Both had agreed to pay homage to the English 
monarch as their feudal lord. The Scots, impatient of their 
vassalage, revolted, whereupon Edward took possession of 
the country as a forfeited fief (1296). Again the Scots rose 
under the patriot ^^lUi((m Wallace; but he was defeated, 
taken to London, and brutally executed. Robert Bruce was 
the next leader. Edward marched against him, but died in 
sight of Scotland. The English soldiers, however, harried 
the land, and drove Bruce from one hiding-place to another. 
Almost in despair, the patriot lay one day sleepless on his 
bed, where he watched a spider jumping to attach its thread 
to a wall. Six times it failed, but succeeded on the seventh. 
Bruce, encouraged by this simple incident, resolved to try 
again. Success came. Castle after castle fell into his hands, 
until only Stirling remained. Edward II., going to its 
relief, met Bruce at Bannochhurn (1314). The Scottish army 
was defended by pits, having sharp stakes at the bot- 
tom, and covered at the top with sticks and turf. The 
English knights, galloping to the attack, plunged into these 
hidden holes. In the midst of the confusion a body of sut- 
lers appeared on a distant hiU, and the dispirited English, 
mistaking them for a new army, fled in dismay. 

Scottish Independence was acknowledged (1328).^ After 

1 It is noticeable that there existed a constant alliance of Scotland and France. 
Whenever, during the Hth and 15th centuries, war broke out between France and 
England, the Scots made a diversion by attacking England, and their soldiers often 
took service in the French armies on the continent. So if we learn that, at any- 
time duiing this long period, France and England were fighting, it is pretty safe to 
conclude that along the borders of England and Scotland there were plundering-raids 
and skirmishes. 



40 MEDIEVAL PEOPLES. [14th CENT. 

this, many wars arose between Scotland and England, but 
Scotland was never in danger of being conquered. 

The Hundred- Years' War with France was tlie event 
of the 14th and the first half of the 15th century (p. 54). 

Wars of the Roses (1455-85).— About the middle of 
the 15th centuiy a struggle concerning the succession to the 
Enghsh throne arose between the Houses of York and Lan- 
caster, the former being descended from the thii-d, and the 
latter from the fourth, son of Edward III. (p. 34). A civil 
war ensued, known as the Wars of the Roses, since the 
adherents of the House of York wore, as a badge, a white 
rose, and those of Lancaster, a red one. The contest 
lasted thirty years, and twelve pitched battles were fought. 
During this war the House of York seated three kings upon 
the throne. But the last of these, Richard III., a brutal 
tyrant whom prose and poetry ^ have combined to condemn, 
was slain on the field of BostvortJi, and the red rose placed 
the crown on the head of its representative, Henry VII. 
Thus ended the Plantagenet Line, which had ruled England 
for three centuries; the new house was called the Tudor 
Line, from Henry's family name. 

The Result of this civil war was the triumph of the 
kingly power over that of the aristocracy. It was a war 
of the nobles and their military retainers. Except in the 
immediate march of the armies, the masses pursued their 
industries as usual. Men plowed and sowed, bought and 
sold, as though it were a time of peace. Both sides pro- 
tected the neutral citizens, but were bent on exterminating 
each other. No quarter was asked or given.^ During the 
war, eighty princes of the blood and two hundred nobles 

1 Read Sliakspere's play, Richard III. 

2 When Edward IV. galloped over the field of battle after a victory, he would 
shout, " Spare the soldiers, but slay the gentlemen." 



1485.] RISE OF MODERN NATIONS — ENGLAND. 41 

fell by the sword, and half the families of distinction were 
destroyed. The method of holding land was changed, and 
"landlord and tenant" took the place of "lord and vassal." 
The Earl of Warwick, whose powerful influence in seating 
and unseating monarchs won him the title of "The King- 
maker," was also " The Last of the Barons." The king hence- 
forth had little check, and the succeeding monarchs ruled 
with an authority before unknown in English history. 
Constitutional liberty, which had been steadily growing 
since the day of Runnymede, now gave place to Tudor 
absolutism. The field of Bosworth, moreover, marked the 
downfall of feudalism; with its disappearance the middle 
ages came to an end. 

EARLY ENGLISH CIVILIZATION. 

The Anglo-Saxons. — The German invaders brought to England 
their old traits and customs, in which traces of Paganism lingered long 
after Christianity was formally adopted. Coming in separate bands, 
each fighting and conquering for itself, the most successful chieftains 
founded kingdoms. The royal power gradually increased, though 
always subject to the decisions of the Witan, composed of earls, prel- 
ates, and the leading thanes and clergy. The Witenagemot (Assem- 
bly of Wise Men), a modification of the ancient German Assembly, 
was held at the Christmas, Easter, and Whitsuntide festivals. This 
body could elect and depose the king, who was chosen from the royal 
family. 1 

The earls or du'kes represented the old German nobility ; the thanes 
or gentry were attached to the king and nobles ; and the ceorls or 
yeomen, freemen in name, were often semi-servile in obligations. 
Lowest of all, and not even counted in the population, was a host of 
thralls, — hapless slaves who were sold with the land and cattle, one 
slave equaling four oxen in value. A ceorl who had acquired "five 
hides 2 of land, church and kitchen, bell-house and burh-gate-seat, and 
special duty in the king's hall," or a merchant who had thrice crossed 

1 Every tribal king claimed descent from Woden. To the House of Cerdic, the 
founder of the West-Saxon dynasty, is traced the pedigree of Queen Victoria. 

2 The dimensions of a hide were perhaps about thirty acres. The burh was the 
home-yard and buildings, entered through a gate in the earth-wall inclosure. 



42 MEDIEVAL PEOPLES. 

the seas on his own account, might become a thane ; and in certain 
eases a slave might earn his freedom. 

Shires, Hundreds, and Tithings.— Ten Anglo-Saxon families 
made a tithing, and by a system of mutual police or frank-pledge, each 
one became bail for the good conduct of the other nine. Ten tithings 
made a hundred, names which soon came to stand for the soil on which 
they lived. The land conferred in individual estates was called hoMancl 
(book-land) ; that reserved for the public use was follland. 

The wercgeUl (life-money) and wihtgcld (crime-money) continued in 
force, and covered nearly every possible crime, from the murder of a 
king to a bruise on a comrade's finger-nail. As part of the crime-money 
went to the Crown, it was a goodly source of royal income. The amount 
due increased with the rank of the injured party ; thus, the weregeld 
of the West-Saxon king was six times that of the thane, and the thane's 
was four times that of the ceorl. The weregeld also settled the value 
of an oath in the law-courts: '' A thane could outswear half a dozen 
eeorls ; an earl could outswear a whole township." The word of the 
king was ordered to be taken without an oath. Some crimes, such as 
premeditated murder or perjury after theft, were inexpiable. 

The Ordeals were used in cases of doubtful guilt. Sometimes a 
caldron of boiling water or a red-hot iron was brought before the 
court. The man of general good character was made to plunge his 
hand in the water or to carry the iron nine paces ; but he of ill repute 
immersed his arm to the elbow, and was given an iron of treble weight. 
After three days he was declared guilty or innocent, according to the 
signs of perfect healing. Sometimes the accused was made to walk 
blindfolded and barefooted over red-hot plowshares ; and sometimes 
he was bound hand and foot, and thrown into a pond, to establish his 
innocence or guilt, according as he sank or floated. Ordeals were for- 
mally abolished by the Church in the 13th century. 

The Duel, in which the disputants or their champions fought, was 
transplanted from Normandy about the time of the Conquest ; and the 
Grand Assize, the first establishment in regular legal form of trial by 
jury, was introduced by Henry II. 

Commerce was governed by strict protective laws ; and every pur- 
chase, even of food, had to be made before witnesses. If a man went 
to a distance to buy any article, he must first declare his intention to 
his neighbors ; if he chanced to buy while absent, he must publish the 
fact on his return. Nothing could be legally bought or sold for three 
miles outside a city's walls, and the holder of wares whose purchase in 
open market could not be proved, not only forfeited the goods, but was 
obliged to establish his character for honesty before the legal inspector 
of sales. Judging from the laws, theft and smuggling, though pun- 
ished with great severity, were prevalent crimes. 



RISE OF MODERN NATIONS — ENGLAND, 



4S 



Solitary travelers were regarded with suspicion, and an early law 
declared that '' if a man come from afar or a stranger go out of the 
highway, and he then neither shout nor blow a horn, he is to be ac- 
counted a thief, either to be slain or to be redeemed." 




THE SCKU'TOUlUil OF A MONASTKKY.— A MOXK ILLUMINATING A MANUSCRIPT. 



Literature and the Arts flourished only in convents, where the 
patient monks wrought in gold, silver, and jewels, and produced exqui- 
sitely illuminated manuscripts. The name of "T/<e Venerable Bede" 
(673-735), the most distinguished of Anglo-Saxon writers, is familiar to 
all readers of English history, and we recognize Alcuin (735-804) as the 
preceptor of Charlemagne. Alfred the Great, whom popular tra- 
dition invested with nearly every virtue, was a tireless student and 
writer. 

Truthfulness, Respect for Woman, and Hospitality were the old 
wholesome German traits. The doors of the Anglo-Saxon hall were 
closed to none, known or unknown, who appeared worthy of en- 
trance. The stranger was welcomed with the customary offer -of water 
to wash his hands and feet, after which he gave up his arms and 
took his place at the family board. For two nights no questions were 
asked; after that his host was responsible for his character. In later 
times, a strange-comer who was neither armed, nor rich, nor a clerk, 
was obliged to enter and leave his host's house by daylight, nor was he 
allowed to remain out of his own tithing more than one night at a time. 



44 



MEDIEVAL PEOPLES. 




HOUSE OF A NOBLEMAN (12TH CENTURY). 



The Home of a prosperous 
Anglo-Saxon consisted generally 
of a large wooden building (the 
hall) surrounded by several de- 
tached cabins (the bowers) situ- 
ated in ample space, inclosed by 
an earthwork and a ditch, with 
a strong gate (the hurh-gate) for 
entrance. The hall was the 
general resort of the numerous 
household. It was hung with 
cloth or embroidered tapestries, 
and had hooks for arms, armor, 
musical instruments, etc. The 
floor was of clay, or, in palaces, 
of tile mosaic. Its chief furniture was benches, which served as seats 
by day and for beds at night. A sack of straw and a straw pillow, with 
sheet, coverlet, and goatskin, laid on a bench or on the floor, furnished 
a sufficient couch for even a royal Saxon. A stool or chair covered with a 
rug or cushion marked 
the master's place. The 
table was a long board 
placed upon trestles, 
and laid aside when 
not in use. A hole in 
the roof gave outlet to 
the clouds of smoke 
from the open fire on 
the floor. The bowers 
furnished private sit- 
ting and bed rooms for 
the ladies of the house, 
the master, and distin- 
guished guests. Here the Anglo-Saxon dames carded, spun, and wove, 
and wrought the gold embroideries that made their needlework fa- 
mous throughout Europe. The straw bed lay on a bench in a curtained 
recess, and the furniture was scanty, for in those times nothing which 
could not be easily hidden was safe from plunderers. The little win- 
dows (called eye-holes) were closed by a wooden lattice, thin horn, or 
linen, for glass windows were as yet scarcely known. A rude candle 
stuck upon a spike was used at night.— The women were fond of flowers 
and gardens. At the great feasts they passed the ale and mead, and 
distributed gifts— the spoils of victory— to the warrior-guests. i They 
1 The master was called the hlaf-ord (loaf-owner), and the mistress hlaf-dig (loaf 




iiiiiiii^^ 

EARLY ENGLISH BENCH OH BEIJ. 



RISE OP MODERN NATIONS — ENGLAND. 



45 



were as hard mistresses as the old Roman matrons, and their slaves 
were sometimes scourged to death by their orders. 

Dress. — The men usually went bareheaded, with flowing beard, and 
long hair parted in the middle. A girdled tunic, loose short trousers, 
and wooden or leather shoes completed the costume. The rich wore 
ornamented silk cloaks. A girl's hair hung flowing or braided ; after 
marriage it was cut short or bound around the head, as a mark of sub- 
jection. It was a fashion to dye the hair hlue, but a lady's head-dress 
left only her face exposed ; her brilliantly dyed robes and palla were 
in form not unlike those of Roman times. 

Hunting and Hawking were the favorite out-door sports ; the in- 
door were singing, — for even a laboring-man was disgraced if he could 
not sing to his own accompaniment, — harp-playing, story-telling, and, 
above all, the old German habits, feasting and drinking. 




A DINNER- PA IITY. 



The Norman introduced new modes of thought and of life. More 
cleanly and delicate in personal habits, more elaborate in tastes, more 
courtly and ceremonious in manner, fresh from a province where learn- 
ing had just revived and which was noted for its artistic architecture, 
and coming to a land that for a century had been nearly barren of 
literature and whose buildings had little grace or beauty, the Nor- 
man added culture and refinement to the Anglo-Saxon strength and 
sturdiness. Daring and resolute in attack, steady in discipline, skil- 
ful in exacting submission, fond of outside splendor, proud of military 
power, and appreciative of thought and learning, it was to him, says 
Pearson, that "England owes the builder, the knight, the schoolman, 
the statesman." But it was still only the refinement of a brutal age. 
The Norman soon drifted into the gluttonous habits he had at first 
ridiculed, and the conquest was enforced so pitilessly that "it was 



distributer): hence the modern words lord and lady. The domestics and retainers 
were called loaf-eaters. 



46 



MEDIEVAL PEOPLES. 



impossible to walk the streets of any great city without meeting men 
whose eyes had been torn out, and whose feet or hands, or both, had 
been lopped off." 

A SCENE IN REAL LIFE. 

The Anglo-Saxon Noon Meat. — About three o'clock in the afternoon 
the chief, his guests, and all his household, meet in the great hall. 
While the hungry crowd, fresh from woodland and furrow, lounge 
near the fire or hang up their weapons, the slaves drag in the heavy 
board, spreading on its upper half a handsome cloth. The tableware 
consists of wooden platters and bread-baskets, bowls for the universal 
broth, drinking-horns and cups, a few steel knives shaped like our 
modern razors, and some spoons, but no forks. As soon as the board is 
laid, the benches are drawn up, and the work of demolition begins. 
Great round cakes of bread, huge junks of boiled bacon, vast rolls of 
broiled eel, cups of milk, horns of ale, wedges of cheese, lumps of salt 
butter, and smoking piles of cabbage and beans, all disappear like 
magic. Kneeling slaves offer to the lord and his honored guests long 




rUIMlTIVE METHOD OF COOKING (FKOM 14Tn CENTUUY MS.). 

skewers or spits on which steaks of beef or venison smoke and sputter, 
ready for the hacking blade. Poultry, game, and geese are on the 
upper board ; but, except the bare bones, the crowd of loaf-eaters see 
little of these dainties. Fragments and bones strew the floor, where 
they are eagerly snapped up by hungry hounds, or lie till the close of 
the meal. Meantime a clamorous mob of beggars and cripples hang 
round the door, squabbling over the broken meat, and mingling their 
unceasing whine with the many noises of the feast. l 

After the banquet comes the revel. The drinking-glasses — with 
rounded bottoms, so that they cannot stand on the table, 2 but must be 

1 In Norman times the beggars grew so insolent that ushers armed with rods were 
posted outside the hall door to keep them from snatching the food from the dishes 
as the cooks carried it to the table. 

2 This characteristic of tlie old drinking-cups is said to have given rise to the 
modern name of tumbler. 



RISE OF MODERN NATIONS — ENGLAND. 



47 



emptied at a draught — are now laid aside for gold and silver goblets, 
which are constantly filled and refilled with mead and — in grand houses 
— with wine. Gleemen sing, and twang the viola or harp (called glee- 
wood), or blow great blasts from trumpets, horns, and pipes, or act the 




PUKrAUIXG A CANDIDATE FOR KNIGHTHOOD (FROM A 12TH CENTURY MS.). 



buffoon -with dance and jugglery. Amid it all rises the gradually increas- 
ing clamor of the guests, who, fu'ed by incessant drinking, change their 
shouted riddles into braggart boasts, then into taunts and threats, and 
often end the night with bloodshed. (Condensed from Collier. ) 



48 



MEDIEVAL PEOPLES. 



[892. 



II. FRANCE, 




NOKMAN SHIP (FROM THE BAYEUX TAPESTRY). 

The Norsemen — Scandinavians, like the Danish invad- 
ers of England — began to ravage the coast of France during 
the days of Charlemagne. Under his weak successors, they 
came thick and fast, ascending the rivers in their boats, and 
burning and plundering far and near. At last, in sheer 
desperation, Charles the Simple gave Rollo, the boldest of 
the vikings, a province since known as Normandy. Rollo 
took the requii-ed oath of feudal service, but delegated the 
ceremony of doing homage to one of his followers, who 
Hfted the monarch's foot to his mouth so suddenly as to 
upset king and throne. 

Soon a wonderful change occurred. The Normans, as 
they were henceforth called, showed as much vigor in culti- 
vating their new estates as they had formerly in devastating 



911.] 



RISE OF MODERN NATIONS — FRANCE. 



49 



them. They adopted the language, religion, and customs of 
the French, and, though they invented nothing, they devel- 
oped and gave new life to all they touched. Ere long 
Normandy became the faii-est province, and these mid 
Norsemen, the bravest knights, the most astute statesmen, 
and the grandest budders of France. 

TABLE OF FRENCH MEDI-ffiVAL KINGS. 



HUGH CAPET (987-996). 

I 
EGBERT (996-1031). 

I 
HENRY I. (1031-60). 

I 
PHILIP I. (1060-1108). 

I 
LOUIS VI., the Fat (1108-37). 

I 
LOUIS VII., the Young (1137-80). 

I 
Philip II., Augustus (1180-1223). 

I 
Louis Vlll. (1223-26). 

I 



LOUIS IX., Saint (1226-70). 



Charles, Count of Anjou and Provence, 
founder of House of Naples. 



PHILIP III., the Hardy (1270-85). 



Robert, Count of Clermont, founder of 
House of Bourhon. 



PHILIP IV., the Fair (1285-1314). 



Charles, Count of Valois, founder of 
House of Valois (p. 54). 



Louis x. (1314). 



PHILIP V. (1316). 



CHARLES IV. (1322). 



CHARLES, Count of Valois, sou of Philip III. 

I 
PHILIP VI. (1328-50). 

I 
JOHN, the Good (1350-64). 

r 

CHARLES v., the Wise (1364-80). 

I 



ISABELLA, m. 
EDWARD II. of 

England. 

I 

EDWARD III. 
(p. 54). 



I 

CHARLES VI., the Well-beloved (1380-1422). 

I 
Charles VII., th,e Victorious (1422-61). 

LOUIS XI. (1461-83). 

I 

Charles VIII. (1483-98). 



1 

LOUIS, Duke of Orleans, 

founder of House of 

Valois-Orleans. 



50 MEDIEVAL PEOPLES. [843-987. 

The Later Carlovingian Kings ^ proved as power- 
less to defend and govern, as tliey had to preserve, the 
inheritance of their great ancestors. During the terror of 
the Norseman invasion, the people naturally turned for pro- 
tection to the neighboring lords, whose castles were their 
only refuge. Feudalism, consequently, grew apace. In the 
10th century France existed only in name. Normandy, 
Burgundy, Aquitaine, Champagne, Toulouse, were the true 
states, each with its independent government and its own 
life and history. 

The Capetian Kings. — As Charles Martel, Mayor of 
the Palace, gained power during the last days of the do- 
nothing, Merovingian kings, and his son established a new 
dynasty, so, in the decadence of the Carlovingians, Hugh 
the Great, Count of Paris, gained control, and his son, 
Hugh Capet, was crowned at Rheims (987). Thus was 
founded the third or Capetian Line. France had now a 
native French king, and its capital was Paris. 

Weakness of the Monarchy. — The Royal Domain 
(see map), however, was only a sniaU territory along the 
Seine and Loire. Even there the king scarcely rided his 
nobles, while the great vassals of the Crown paid him scant 
respect. The early Capets made little progress toward 
strengthening their authority. When William of Nor- 
mandy won the English crown, there began a long contest 
(p. 36) that retarded the growth of France for centuries ; 
and when Eleanor, the divorced wife of Louis VII., was 
married to Henry Plantagenet, Count of Anjou, — so carry- 
ing her magnificent inheritance of Poitou and Aquitaine to 



1 The descendants of Charlemagne were called the Carlovingian kings. It is a 
significant fact tliat they have come down to us with the nicknames of the Good- 
natured, the Bald, the Stammerer, the Fat, the Simple, and the Idle (Brief Hiat. 
France, Appendix, p. xxv.). 



RISE OF MODERN NATIONS — FRANCE. 



Mm who soon after became Henry II. of England, — the 
French crown was completely overshadowed. 



PARAMOUNT FEUDATOR 
at the time of tl 

HUGH CAPET 




' ' ;v ^ N £ f- £ h MEDITERRANEAN 



Growth of the Monarchy. — The history of France 
during the 13th, 14th, and 15th centuries shows how, in 
spite of foreign foes, she absorbed the great fiefs one by 
one ; how royalty triumphed over feudalism ; and how fi- 
nally all became consolidated into one great monarchy. 

Philip Augustus (1180-1223) was the ablest monarch 
France had seen since Charlemagne. AVlien a mere boy he 



52 



MEDIEVAL PEOPLES, 



[13th cent. 




PHlLIi' AUGUSTUS. 



gained the counties of 
Vermandois, Amiens, 
and Valois; wliile by 
his marriage he secui'ed 
L'Artois. 

King John of Eng- 
land being accused of 
having murdered his 
nephew Arthur, the 
heir of Brittany, Phihp 
summoned him, as his 
vassal, to answer for the 
crime before the peers 
of France. On his non- 
appearance, John was 
adjudged to have forfeited his fiefs. War ensued, during 
which Philip captured not only Normandy, which gave him 
control of the mouth of the Seine, but also Anjou, Maine, 
and Touraine, upon the Loire. 

Certain cities were granted royal charters conferring spe- 
cial privileges ; under these, the citizens formed associations 
{commimes) for mutual defense, elected magistrates, and or- 
ganized militia. Wlien Philip invaded Flanders, the troops 
from sixteen of the commimes fought at his side, and helped 
him win the battle of Bouvines (1214) over the Flemings, 
Germans, and English. It was the first great French vic- 
tory, and gave to the Crown authority, and to the people a 
thirst for military glory. 

The Albigenses, so called from the city of Albi, professed 
doctrines at variance with the Church of Rome, Pope In- 
nocent III. accordingly preached a crusade against them and 
their chief defender. Count Raymond of Toulouse. It was 
led by Simon de Montfort, father of the earl famous in 



1226.] RISE OF MODERN NATIONS — FRANCE. 



53 



English history. Ruthless adventurers flocked to his stand- 
ard from all sides, and for years this beautiful land was 
ravaged with fire and sword. Helpless Toulouse at last 
lapsed to the Crown, and so France acquired the Mediterra- 
nean coast. Instead of being shut up to the lands about 
Paris, the kingdom now touched three seas. 

Louis IX. (1226-70) is best known by his title of Saint, 
and history loves to describe him as sitting beneath the 
spreading oak at Vincennes, and dispensing justice among 
his people. By his integrity, goodness, and wisdom he 
made all classes respect his rule. He firmly repressed the 
warring barons, and established the Parliament of Paris, — 
a court of justice to enforce equal laws throughout the 
realm. During this strong and beneficent reign, France 
assumed the first rank among the European nations. 

Philip IV. (1285-1314) was 
called The Fair, — a title which ap- 
pHed to his complexion rather than 
his character, for he was crafty and 
cruel. In order to repress the nobles, 
he encouraged the communes and 
elevated the middle classes (hoiir- 
geoisie). His reign is memorable for 
the long and bitter contest which he 
carried on with the Pope, Boniface 
VIII. To strengthen himself, the 
king summoned for the first time 
in French history (1302) the States- 
General, or deputies of the Three Es- 
tates of the Realm, — the nobles, the 
clergy, and the commons (tiers etat). 
The French people thus obtained 
representation from their king, as 




A SOLDIER (14TH CENTURY). 



54 



MEDIEVAL PEOPLES. 



[14th cent. 




the English people had, thirty-seven years before, from their 
nobles (p. 38). The papal court was finally removed to 
Avignon, and the new Pope, Clement V., became in effect a 

vassal of France. 

The order of Templars (p. 93), 
by its wealth and pride, excited 
Philip's greed and jealonsy. He 
accordingly seized the knights, 
and confiscated their treasures. 
The members were accused of 
blasphemous crimes, which they 
confessed under torture, and 
many were burned at the stake. 
House of Valois. — Philip's 
three sons came to the throne 
in succession, but died leaving 
no male heir. The question then 
arose whether the crown could 
descend to a female. It was decided that, under the old 
Salic law of the Franks, the kingdom could not " fall to 
the distaff." During the short reign of Philip's sons, their 
uncle Charles, Count of Valois, secured almost royal power, 
and — the third instance of the kind in French history — his 
son obtained the crown, which thus went to the Valois 
branch of the Capet family. This succession was disputed 
by Edward III. of England, as son of the daughter of 
Phihp IV. So began the contest caUed 

The Hundred-Years' War (1328-1453).— Like the 
Peloponnesian war of ancient Greece, this long struggle was 
not one of continuous fighting, but was broken by occasional 
truces, or breathing-spells, caused by the sheer exhaustion 
of the contestants. Throughout the progress of this contest 
the fortunes of France and England were so linked that the 



A KNIGHT TEMPLAR. 



1328.] RISE OF MODERN NATIONS — FRANCE. 



55 



same events often form the principal featm-es in the history 
of both, while there were many striking coincidences and 
contrasts in the condition of the two countries. 



France. 

Philip of Valois (1328-50) came to 
tlie tlirone at nearly the same time as his 
English rival, tliougli France had three 
kings (Philip, John, and Charles) during 
Edward III.'s reign of fifty years. The 
storm of war was long gathering. Philip, 
coveting Aqiiitaine, excited hostilities 
upon its borders ; gathered a fleet, and 
destroyed Southampton and Plymoutli ; 
interrupted the English trade with the 
great manufacturing cities of Ghent and 
Bruges ; and aided the revolt of Robert 
Bruce in Scotland. A war of succession 
having arisen in Brittany, and the rival 
kings supporting opposite factions, 
Philip, during a truce, invited a partj^ of 
Breton noblemen to a tournament, and 
beheaded them without trial. 



England. 

Edward III.'s reign (1327-77) was 
marked by England's most brilliant suc- 
cesses in war. At first Edward did 
homage for his lands in France ; but after- 
ward, exasperated by Philip's hostility, 
he asserted his claim to the French 
throne ; made allies of Flanders and 
Germany ; quartered the lilies of France 
with the lions of England ; assembled a 
fleet, and defeated the French off Sluya 
(1340), thus winning the first great Eng- 
lish naval victory; and finally, upon 
Philip's perfidy in slaying the Breton 
knights, invaded Normandy, and ravaged 
the country to the very walls of Paris. 
On his retreat, he was overtakeii by an 
overwhelming French army near Crecy. 



Battle of Crecy (1346).— The EngHsh yeomanry had 
learned the use of the longbow (p. 36), and now formed 
Edward's main reliance. 

The French army was a motley feudal array, the knights 
despising all who fought on foot. The advance was led by a 
body of G-enoese crossbow-men, who recoiled before the piti- 
less storm of English arrows. The French knights, instantly 
charging forward, trampled the helpless ItaUans under foot. 
In the midst of the confusion, the EngUsh poured down on 
their struggHng ranks. Philip liimself barely escaped, and 
reached Amiens with only five attendants. 

The Result of this victory was the capture of Calais. Ed- 
ward, driving out the inhabitants, made it an English settle- 
ment. Henceforth, for two hundred years, this city afforded 
the English an open door into the heart of France. Crecy 
was a triumph of the Enghsh yeoman over the French 
knight. It inspu-ed England with a love of conquest. 



56 



MEDIEVAL PEOPLES. 



[14th cent. 



The Black Death (1347-50), a terrible plague from 
the East, now swept over Europe. Half the population of 
England perished. Travelers in Germany found cities and 
villages without a living inhabitant. At sea, ships were dis- 
covered adrift, their crews having all died of the pestilence. 
The mad passions of men were stayed in the presence of 
this fearful scourge. Just as it abated, Philip died, leaving 
the crown to his son. 




KING JOHN AND HIS SON AT POITIERS. 



John the Good (i350-64) was brave 

aud chivalrous, but his rashness and 
gaj'Bty were in marked contrast with Ed- 
ward's stern common sense. His char- 
acter was written all over with Crecys. 
Charles the Bad, the turbulent kins of 
Navarre, was constantly rousinj? opposi- 
tion ; John seized him at a supper given 
by the Dauphin (the eldest son of the 
French king), and threw him into prison. 
Charles's friends appealed to Edward, 
and did homage to him for their domains. 



While Edward was absent, the Scots, 
as usual in alliance witli Fiance (p. 39), 
invaded England ; but, in the same year 
with Crecy, Edward's queen, Philipi)a, 
defeated them at Neville's Cross. The 
French war smoldered on, with fitful 
truce and plundering raid, until Edward 
espoused Charles's cause, when tlie con- 
test broke out anew. The Prince of 
Wales— called the Black Prince, from the 
color of his armor— carried fire and sword 
to tlie heart of France. 



Battle of Poitiers (1356). — John, ha^dng assembled 



1356.] 



RISE OF MODERN NATIONS— FRANCE. 



57 



sixty thousand men, the flower of French chivalry, inter- 
cepted the Prince returning with his booty. It was ten years 
since Crecy, and the king hoped to retrieve its disgrace, but he 
only doubled it. The Prince's little army of eight thousand 
was posted on a hill, the sole approach being by a lane bor- 




ENGLISH LONGBOW-MEN. 



dered with hedges, behind which the English archers were 
concealed. The French knights, galloping up this road, 
were smitten by the shafts of the bowmen. Thrown into 
disorder, they fell back on the main body below, when the 
Black Prince in turn charged down the hill. John sprang 
from his horse, and fought till he and his young son Philip 
were left almost alone. This brave boy stood at his father's 



58 



MEDIEVAL PEOPLES. 



[1356. 



side, crying out, " Guard the left ! Guard the right ! " until, 
pressed on every hand, the king was forced to surrender. 

The Black Prince treated his prisoner with the courtesy 
befitting a gallant knight. He stood beliind his chair at 
dinner, and, according to the fashion of the age, waited upon 
him like a servant. When they entered London, the captive 
king was mounted on a splendidly caparisoned white charger, 
while the conqueror rode at his side on a black pony. John 
was afterward set free by the Treaty of Bretigni/, agreeing 
to give up Aquitaine and pay three million crowns. One of 
his sons, however, who had been left at Calais as a hostage, 
escaped. Thereupon John, feeUng bound by honor, went 
back to liis splendid captivity. 



The Condition of France was now 
pitiable indeed. Tlie Frencli army, dis- 
solved into companies called Free Lances, 
roamed the country, plundering friend 
and foe. Even the Poije at Avignon had 
to redeem himself with forty thousand 
crowns. The land in the track of the 
English armies lay waste ; the plow 
rusted in the furrow, and the houses were 
blackened ruins. The ransoms of the re- 
leased nobles were squeezed from Jacques 
Bonhomme, as the lords nicknamed the 
peasant. Beaten and tortured to reveal 
their little hoards, the serfs fled to the 
woods, or dug pits in Avhich to hide from 
their tormentors. Brutalized by centu- 
ries of tjTanny, they at last rose as by a 
common impulse of despair and hate. 
Snatching any weapon at hand, they 
rushed to the nearest chateau, and piti- 
lessly burned and massacred. The Eng- 
lish joined with the French gentry in 
crushing this rebellion ("The Jacque- 
rie"). Meanwhile the bourgeoisie in 
Paris, sympathizing with the peasants, 
rose to check the license of the nobles 
and the tyranny of the Crown. The 
States-General made a stand for liberty, 
refusing the Dauphin money and men for 
the war, except with guaranties. But 
the Dauphin marched on Paris ; Marcel, 
the liberal leader, was slain ; and this at- 



The Mack Prince was intrusted with 
the government of Aquitaine. Here lie 
took the part of Don Pedro the Cruel,- a 
dethroned king of Castile,— and won him 
back liis kingdom. But the thankless 
Pedro refused to pay the cost, and tlie 
Black Prince returned, ill, cross, and 
penniless. The liaughty English weie 
little liked in Aquitaine, and, when the 
Prince levied a house-tax to replenish his 
treasury, they turned to the Dauphin,— 
now Charles V.,— who summoned the 
Prince to answer for his exactions. On 
his refusal, Chailes declared the English 
possessions in France forfeited. The 
Prince rallied his ebbing strength, and, 
borne in a litter, took the field. He cap. 
tured Limoges, but sullied his fair fame 
by a massacre of the inhabitants, and was 
carried to England to die. He was buried 
in Canterbury Cathedral, where his hel- 
met, shield, gantlets, and surcoat — em- 
broidered with the arms of France and 
England— still hang above his tomb. 

Defeat of the ^'ngrZis/j,.- England had 
lost the warriors who won Crecy and 
Poitiers; moreover, Du Guesclin fought 
no pitched battles, but waged a far more 
dangerous guerilla warfare. " Never," 
said Edward, " was there a French king 
who Avore so little armor, yet never was 
there one who gave me so much to do." 



13G4.] RISE OF MODERN NATIONS — FRANCE. 



59 




PKIXCE EDWAKIi's 



tempt of the people to win their rights 
was stamped out in blood. 

Charles V. (i304-80), the Wise, 

merited the epithet. Calling to his side 
a brave Breton knight, Du C4ne.sclin. he 
relieved France by sending the Free 
Lances to figlit against Don Pedro. 
When the Aquitaiuiaus asked for help, 
Charles saw his opportunity: for the 
dreaded Black Prince was sick, an<l Ed- 
ward was growing old. So he renewed 
the contest. He did not, like his father, 
rush lieadlong into battle, but committed 
his army to Du Guesclin,— now Constable 
of France,— with orders to let famine, 
rather tlian fighting, do the work. One 
by one he got back the lost provinces, 
and the people gladly returned to their 
natuial ruler. 

The Constable died while besieging a 
castle in Auvergne, and tlie governor, 
wlio had agreed to surrender on a certain 
day, laid the keys of the stronghold upon 
the hero's coffin. Charles survived his 
great general only a few months, but he 
had regained nearly all his father and 
grandfather Ijad lost. 

Charles VI. (I380-1422), a beautiful 
boy of twelve years, became king. He 
ascended the tlirone three years after 
Richard, and his reign coincided with 
those of three English kings (Richard II., 



And now Edward closed his long 
reign. Scarcely was tlie great warrior 
laid in his grave ere the English coast 
was ravaged b}^ the French fleet; this, 
too, only twenty years from Poitiers. 
Domestic alfairs were not more pros- 
perous. True, foreign war had served to 
diniinisli race hatred. Norman kniglit, 
Saxon l)owman, and Welsh lancer had 
shared a common danger and a common 
glory at Crecy and Poitiers. But the old 
enmity now took the form of a struggle 
between the rich and the poor. The 
yoke of villeinage, which obliged the 
b(mdsmen to till tlieir lord's land, harvest 
his crops, etc., bore heavily. During the 
Black Death many laborers died, and 
consequently wages rose. The landlords 
refused to pay the increase, and Parlia- 
ment passed a law punishing any who 
asked a higher price for his work. This 
enraged the peasants. One John Ball 
went about denouncing all landlords, and 
often quoting the lines, 

" When Adam delved and Eve span 
Who was then the gentleman ? " 

Richard II. (1377-99), a beautiful 
bo3' of eleven years, became king. Heavy 
taxation having still further incensed the 
disaffected peasants, thousands rose in 
arms and marched upon London (1381). 



60 



MEDIEVAL PEOPLES. 



[14th cent. 



Henry IV. and V.),— the reverse of the 
reign of Edward III. Both countries 
were now governed by minors, who were 
under the infiueuce of ambitious uncles, 
anxious for their own personal power. 

Charles's guardians assembled a great 
tieet at Sluys, and for a time frightened 
England by the fear of invasion. Next 
tliej' led an army into Flanders, and at 
Hosebecque (1382) the French kniglits, 
with their mailed horses and long lances, 
trampled down the Flemings by thou- 
sands. This was a triumph of feudalism 
and the aristocracy over popular liberty ; 
and the French cities which had revolted 
against the tyranny of the court were 
punished with terrible severity. Charles 
dismissed his guardians a jear earlier 
than Richard, and, more fortunate than 
lie, called to the head of affairs Du Clis- 
son, friend and successor of Du Guesclin. 

The King's Insanity.— An attempt be- 
ing made to assassinate tlie Constable, 
Charles pursued the criminals into Brit- 
tany. One sultrj^ day, as he was going 
through a foiest, a crazy man darted 
before him and shouted, " Thou art be- 
trayed ! " The king, weak from illness 
and the heat, was startled into madness. 

TJie Dukes of Burgundy and Orleans 
now governed, while for thirty years a 
maniac sat upon the tlirone. Tlie death of 
Burgundy only dovibled the liorrois of the 
times, for liis son, John tlie Fearless, was 
yet more unprincipled and cruel. Final- 
ly John became reconciled to his cousin 
Louis, Duke of Orleans, and, in token 
thereof, they partook of the sacrament 
together. Three daj-s afterward Orleans 
was murdered by Burgundy's servants. 
The crazy king pardoned the murderer 
of liis brother. The new Duke of Orleans 
being yotaiig, his father-in-law, the Count 
of Armagnac, became the head of the 
l)artj^ which took his name. The Burgun- 
dians espoused the popular cause, and 
were friendly to England ; the Orlean- 
ists, the aristocratic side, and opposed 
England. The queen joined the Burgun- 
dians ; the Dauphin, the Armagnacs. 
Paris ran with blood. 



The boy -king met them on Smithlield 
common. Their leader, Wat Tyler, ut- 
tering a threat, was slain by the mayor. 
A cry of vengeance rising from the mul- 
titude, Richard boldly rode forwaid, ex- 
claiming, " I am your king. 1 will be 
your leader." Tlie peasants accepted his 
written guaranty of their freedcmi, and 
went liome quietly. But Parliament re- 
fused to ratify the king's pledges, and 
this insurrection was trodden out by the 
nobles, as the Jacquerie had been twenty- 
three years before, in blood. 

Richard's character, besides this one 
act of courage, showed few kingly traits. 
His reign was a constant struggle with 
his uncles. When lie threw off their 
yoke, he ruled well for a time, but soon 
began to act the despot, and by his reck- 
lessness alienated all classes. With his 
kingdom in this unsettled state, he sought 
lieace by marrying a child-wife onlj' eight 
years old, Isabella, daughter of Charles 
VI. of France. Tliis marriage was un- 
popular; the people were restless?, the 
nobles unruly, and finally Richard's 
cousin, Henry of Lancaster, seized the 
crown. Ricliard was deposed, and soon 
after, as is tliought, was murdered in 
prison, like his great-grandfather, Ed- 
ward II. 

Henry IV. (1399-1413), who now 
founded tlie House of Lancaster, was 
authorized by Parliament to rule, though 
the Earl of March, a descendant of 
Lionel (p. 34), was nearer the throne. 
As Henrj' owed his place to Parlia- 
ment, he had to act pretty much as 
that body pleased. The great nobles 
were none too willing to obey. The reign 
was therefore a troubled one. England 
could take no advantage of the distracted 
state of affairs in France. 

Henry V. (I413-22), to strengthen his 
weak title to tlie throne by victory, 
and to give the discontented nobles war 
abroad instead of leaving them to plot 
treason at liome, invaded France. While 
marching from Harfleur to Calais, he met 
a vastly superior French force upon the 
plain of Agincourt. 



Battle of Agincourt (1415). — The French army was 
the flower of chivahy. The knights, resplendent in their 



1415.] RISE OF MODERN NATIONS — FRANCE. 



61 



armor, charged upon the English hne. But then- horses 
floundered in the muddy, plowed fields, while a storm of 
arrows beat down horse and rider. In the confusion the 
EngHsh advanced, driving all before them. It was Crecy 
and Poitiers over again. Ten thousand Frenchmen fell, 
four fifths of whom were of gentle blood. 

Treaty of Troyes (1420). — Henry again crossed the 
Channel, captured Kouen, and threatened Paris. In the 
face of this peril, the Dauphin and the Duke of Burgundy 
met for conference. It ended in the assassination of Bur- 
gundy. His son, Philip the Good, at once went over to the 
English camp, taking with him the queen and the helpless 
king. He there concluded a treaty, which declared Henry 
regent and heir of the kingdom, and gave him the hand of 
Charles's daughter, Catharine. Paris and northern France 
submitted ; but the Ai-magnacs, with the Dauphin, held the 
southern part. The conqueror did not live to wear the 
crown he had won. The hero of Agincourt and his father- 
in-law, Charles VI., the crazy king, died within two months 
of each other. 

[The next three reigns of the French and the English kings corre- 
spond to a year. France now loses a mad monarch and gets a frivolous 
king, who finally matures into a strong ruler; England loses a great 
warrior, and gets an infant who, when he matures into manhood, shows 
no strength, and inherits from his mother the tendency of the French 
royal family to insanity.] 



Charles VII. (I422-6I), called the 
" King of Bourges,"— from the city where 
he was crowned,— was so poor that tlie 
chroniclers of the time tell of the straits 
to which he was reduced for a pair of 
hoots. Gay and pleasure-loving, he was 
indifferent to tlie agony of his native 
land. Notso witli Jeanne d'Arc, a maiden 
in Domremy. As she fed her Hock, slie 
seemed to liear angel-voices saying tliat 
she was chosen to save France. Going 
to Charles, she announced that she was 



Henry VI. (I422-6I), though an in- 
fant, was proclaimed at Paris King of 
England and France, the Duke of Bed- 
ford acting as regent. In England there 
was no question as to the succession, and 
tlie claims of the Earl of March vfevQ not 
thought of for a moment. All ej'es were 
fixed on France,— tlie new kingdom Heu- 
rj"^ V. had added to the English monarchy. 
There Bedford gained two great battles, 
won town after town, and finally, resolv- 
ing to cairy the war into southein France, 



62 



MEDIEVAL PEOPLES. 



[15th cent. 



sent of Heaven to conduct liim to be 
crowned at Rheims— then in possession 
of the English. The king reluctantlj^ 
committed his cause into her hands. 



laid siege to Orleans. The capture of 
this city was imminent, when Charles's 
cause was saved by a maid, Jeanne 
d'Arc. 



Jeanne, wearing a consecrated sword and bearing a holy 
banner, led Charles's army into Orleans. The French sol- 

- diers were inspired 

^jC ^^ l^y her presence, 

while the English 
quailed with super- 
stitions fear. The 
Maid of Orleans, 
as she w^as now 
called, raised the 
siege, led Charles 
to Rheims, and 
saw him crowned. 
Then, her mission 
accomplished, she 
begged leave to go 
back to her hum- 
ble home. But she 
had become too valuable to Charles, and he lu-ged her to 
remain. The maid's trust, however, was gone, and the spell 
of her success failed. She was captui-ed, thrown into a 
dungeon at Rouen, and tried as a mtch. Abandoned by 
aU, Jeanne was condemned and burnt at the stake (1431). 




JEANNE D'ARC (JOAN OF ARC). 



The spirit of the maid survived her 
death. French patriotism was aroused, 
and, In spite of himself, Charles was 
borne to victory. First the Duke of 
Burgundy grew lukewarm in the English 
cause, and finally Armaguacs and Bur- 
gundians clasped hands in the Treaty of 
Arras (1435). Bedford died broken- 
hearted. Paris opened its gates to its 
legitimate king. 

Charles's character seemed now to 



Henry VI., as a lyian, had little more 
authority than as a child. His wife, Mar- 
garet, was the daughter of Rene, Duke of 
Anjou. The English opposed this mar 
riage with a French lady. But she pos- 
sessed beauty and force of character, 
and for years ruled in her husband's 
name. 

A formidable insurrection broke out 
(1450) under Jack Cade, wlio, complaining 
of bad government, the king's evil ad- 



1450.] 



RISE OF MODERN NATIONS — FRANCE. 



63 



change. He seized tlie opportuuity to 
press tlie war while Eusland was rent 
with factions. He called to his councils 
Richemout the Constable, and tlie famous 
merchant Jacques Coeur; convened the 
States-General ; organized a regular 
army; recovered Normandy and Gas- 
cony ; and sought to heal the wounds 
and repair the disasters of the long war. 
End of the Hundred- Years' War.— 
Step by step, Charles pushed his con- 
quests from England. Finally Talbot, 
the last and bravest of the English cap- 
tains, fell on the field of Castillon (1453), 
and Ills cause fell with him. It was the 
end of this long and bitter struggle. 
Soon, of all the patrimony of William the 
Conqueror, the dower of Eleanor, the 
conquests of Edward III. and Henry V., 
there was left to England little save the 
city of Calais. 



visers, taxes, etc., led a peasant host 
upon London. This uprising of the peo- 
ple was put down only after bloodshed. 
Tlie nobles, long wont to enrich them- 
selves by the plunder of France, upon the 
reverses in that country, found England 
too small and their revenues too scant, 
and so struggled for jjlace at home. The 
Duke of York, protector during the in- 
sanity of the king, was loath to yield 
power on his recovery, and questions of 
the succession became rife. The claims 
of the House of York were sui)poited by 
the Earlof Warwick,— the "king-maker," 
the most powerful nobleman in England. 
The sky was black with tlie c(miing storm, 
—the Wars of the Roses. The king's 
longing for peace, his feebleness, the in- 
fluence of the queen, the rivalries of tlie 
nobles,— all weakened the English rule in 
France, and gave Chailes his opportunity 



[Two years after Talbot fell, England was desolated by the Wars 
of the Roses. Edward IV. deposed Henry VI. the same year that 
Charles VII. died and Louis XI. ascended the throne ; Rich^,rd III. and 
Charles VIII. were contemporaneous (1483), but English and French 
history during the rest of the 15th century was seldom interwoven.] 



Triumph of Absolutism. — Louis XL's reign marks an 
epoch in French history. He used every energy of his cruel, 
crafty mind, and scrupled at no treachery or deceit to over- 
throw feudalism and bring all classes in subjection to the 
Crown. His policy of centralization restored France to her 
former position in Europe ; and his administration, by mak- 
ing roads and canals, and encouraging manufactures and 
education, secured the internal prosperity of the country. 

The Dukedom, of Burgundy, during the recent 
troubles of France, had gained strength. Comprising the 
Duchy of Burgundy and nearly all the present kingdoms of 
Belgium and the Netherlands, it threatened to become an in- 
dependent state between France and Germany. Its duke, 
Charles the Bold, held the most splendid court in Europe. 
Restless and ambitious, he constantly pursued some scheme 



64 



MEDI^VAIi PEOPLES. 



[15th cent. 



of annexation. He 
was met, however, on 
every hand by Louis's 
craft. He planned 
once with Edw^ard 
IV. of England an in- 
vasion of France j the 
English army again 
crossed the Channel, 
but Louis feasted the 
soldiers, and finally 
bribed Edward to re- 
turn home. Charles 
wanted Lorraine and 
Provence ; his rule 
in Alsace was harsh ; 
while he had offend- 
ed the Swiss. Louis 
cunningly contrived 
to unite these vari- 
ous enemies against 
Charles. The ill-fated duke was defeated at Granson, Morat, 
and Nancy (1476-77) ; and after the last battle his body was 
found frozen in a pool of water by the roadside. Thus 
ended the dream of a Burgundian kingdom. Mary, the 
daughter of Charles, retained his lands in the Low Countries, 
but France secured the Duchy of Burgundy. 

Consolidation of the Kingdom. — Louis also added 
to his kingdom Artois, Provence, Eoussillon, Maine, Anjou, 
Franche Comte, and other extensive districts. After his 
death, his daughter, Anne of Beaujeu, who was appointed 
regent, secured for her brother, Charles VIIL, the hand of 
Anne, heu-ess of Brittany. The last of the great feudal 




1491.] RISE OF MODERN NATIONS — FRANCE. 



65 



states between the Channel and the Pyrenees was absorbed 
by the Crown. 

As the middle ages closed, France, united at home, was 
ready to enter upon schemes of conquest abroad ; and the 
power of the king, instead of being spent in subduing the 
vassals of the Crown, was free to assert the French influence 
among other nations. 

EARLY FRENCH CIVILIZATION. 



The Gauls. — The native 
inhabitants of France were 
Gauls, or Celts. In earliest 
times they dressed in skins, 
dyed or tattooed their flesh, 
drank out of the skulls of 
their enemies,, worshiped 
sticks, stones, trees, and 
thunder, and strangled the 
stranger wrecked on their 
coast. But, many centuries 
before the Romans entered 
Gaul, it had been visited by 
the Phoenicians, and after- 
ward by the Greeks, who 
left, especially along the 
coast, some traces of their 
arts. The Gauls were a 
social, turbulent, enthusi- 
astic race, less truthful and 
more vain, more imagina- 
tive and less enduring, than 
their neighbors the Ger- 
mans. Like them, they 
were large, fair-skinned, 
and yellow-haired. Noisy 
and fluent in sjieeeh, Cicero 

compared them to town-criers, while Cato was impressed with their 
tact in argument. Fond of personal display, they wore their hair 
long and flowing, and affected showy garments. Their chiefs glittered 




EARLY INHABITANTS OF FRANCE. 



66 



MEDIEVAL PEOPLES. 



with jewelry, and delighted in huge headpieces of fur and feathers, 
and in gold and silver belts, from which they hung immense sabers. 

They went to war in all this finery, though they often threw it off 
in the heat of battle. Armed with barbed, iron-headed spears, heavy 
broadswords, lances, and arrows, they rushed fiercely on their foe, 
shouting their fearful war-cry, '' Off with their heads ! " Wildly elated 
by success, they were as greatly depressed by defeat. The gregarious 
instinct was strong ; and with the Hebrew tribe, the Greek phratry, the 
Roman gens, and the German family, may be classed — as, perhaj)S, the 
most tenacious and exclusive of all — the Celtic Clan. 

Their arts were suited to their taste for show. They made brilliant 
dyes and gayly j)laided stuffs, plated metals, veneered woods, wove and 
embroidered carpets, and adorned their cloaks with gold and silver 




TAKIS IN THK .MUjDLE AGES. 



wrought ornaments. Quick to assimilate, they gradually took on all 
the culture and refinements of their Italian conquerors, until the round, 
wattled, clay-plastered, and straw-thatched hut of the early Gaul was 
transformed into the elegant country villa or sumptuous town residence 
of the Gallo-Roman gentleman. 

But the luxurious Gallo-Roman was forced to yield to a new race of 
conquerors, — the Franks, or Teutons; and finally a third people — the 
Normans — left its impress upon the French character. In the combined 
result the Gallic traits were predominant, and are evident in the French- 
man of to-day, just as, across the Channel, the Teutonic influences 
have chiefly molded the English nation. 



RISE OF MODERN NATIONS — GERMANY. 67 



III. GERMANY. 

Comparison with France. — The later Carlovingian 
kings ill Germany were weak, as in France ; and there, also, 
during the terrible Norseman invasions, feudalism took deep 
root. France comprised many fiefs governed by nobles 
almost sovereign ; Germany, also, contained five separate 
peoples — Franks, Saxons, Thuringians, Bavarians, and 
Swabians — whose dukes were nearly independent in their 
realms. But in France the Crown gradually absorbed the 
different feudatories, and so formed one powerful kingdom ; 
while through German history there runs no connecting 
thread, the states continuing jealous, disunited, and often 
hostile. The German monarch was elective, and not, like 
the French king, hereditary. The struggle of the Crown 
with its powerful vassals was alike in both countries, but the 
results were different. While the descendants of Capet held 
the French throne for eight centuries, the German dynasties 
were short-lived. Germany had no central capital city, Uke 
Paris, around which the national sentiment could grow ; and 
the emperor was a Bavarian, a Saxon, but never permanently 
and preeminently a German. The German branch of the 
Carlovingian line ended about three quarters of a century 
earlier than the French. Conrad, Duke of the Franks, was 
elected by the nobles, and, being lifted on the shield, was 
hailed king (911). After a troubled reign, with singular 
nobleness he named as his successor his chief enemy, Henry 
of Saxony, who was thereupon chosen.^ He inaugurated the 

Saxon Dynasty (919-1024).— The tribe conquered by 
Charlemagne only about a hundred years before now took 

1 Tlie messenger sent to inform him of his election found the duke catching 
finches, whence he was known as Henry the Fowler. 



68 MEDIEVAL PEOPLES. [IOth cent. 

the lead in German affairs. This djmasty embraced, in gen- 
eral, the 10th century. It gave to the throne two Henrys 
and three Ottos. 

HOUSE OF SAXONY. 

HENRY I., the Fowler (919-936). 

Otto I., the Great (936-973). 
I 



OTTO II. (973-983). HENRY, Duke of Bavariao 

OTTO III. (983-1002). HENRY, Duke Of Bavaria. 

HENRY II. (1002-24). 

The Magyars, a barbarous people occupying the plains of 
modern Hungary, were the dreaded foe of the empire. More 
cruel than even the Norsemen, they were believed to be can- 
nibals, and to drink the blood of their enemies. They had 
repeatedly swept across Germany to the Rhine, burning 
and slaying without mercy. Henry I., and his son Otto I., 
defeated them in two great battles. After the last over- 
throw, the Hungarians (as they were now called, from taking 
the lands once held by the Huns) settled down peaceably, 
and by the year 1000 became Christian. On the adjacent 
frontier Otto formed a miUtary province, — the Oster (east) 
March, a name since changed to Austria. 

The Burghers. — Seeing that the people .needed strong 
places for their protection against their barbarous enemies, 
Henry founded walled towns and built fortresses, around 
which villages soon grew up. He also ordered every ninth 
man to live in one of these hurghs, as the fortresses were 
styled. Hence arose the burgher class, afterward the great 
support of the Crown in the disputes with the nobles. 

Otto the Great (936-973), like his father, was strong 
enough to hold the German tribes together as one nation, 
and wage successful war against the Slavs, Danes, and other 



951.J RISE OF MODERN NATIONS — GERMANY. G9 

heathen neighbors on the east and the north. Emulating 
the glory of Charlemagne, he repeatedly descended into 
Italy,^ receiving at Milan the crown of the Lombards, and 
at Rome that of the Cassars. Thus was reestablished 

The Holy Roman Empire, founded in the golden age of 
the Frankish monarch. Henceforth the kings of Germany 
claimed to be kings of Lombardy and Roman emperors, and 
thought little of their royal title beside the imperial, which 
gave them, as the head of Christendom and guardian of the 
faith of the Catholic Church, so much higher honor. But, 
in protecting their Italian interests, the emperors wasted the 
German blood and treasure that should have been devoted 
to compacting their home authority. They were often ab- 
sent for years, and meanwhile the dukes, margraves, and 
counts became almost sovereign princes. Thus Germany, 
instead of growing into a united nation, like other European 
peoples, remained a group of almost independent states. 

The Franconian2 Dynasty (1024-1125) embraced, in 
general, the 11th century. It gave to the throne Conrad II. j 
and Henry III., Henry IV., and Henry V. 

HOUSE OF FRANCONIA. 

Conrad ii. (1024-39). 
Henry hi. (1039-56). 

HENRY IV. (1056-1106). 

I 



Henry V. (1106-25). agnes, m. 

FREDERICK OF HOHENSTAUFEN. 



1 There is a gleam of romance connected with Otto's first descent into Italy. Lo- 
thaire, king of that distracted country, liad been poisoned by Berengar, a brutal 
prince, who, in order to secure tlie throne of Italy, wished to marry his son to Adel- 
heid, Lothaire's young and beautiful widow. She spurned the revolting alliance, 
and, escaping from the loathsome prison where she was confined, appealed to Otto, 
who defeated Berengar, and afterward married Adelheid. 

2 The Eastern or Teutonic Fraucia (Frankland) is termed Franconia, to distin- 
guish it from Western Francia, or France (p. 29). 



70 MEDIEVAL PEOPLES. [llTH CENT. 

Conrad II. (1024-39) annexed to the empire the king- 
dom of Bui'gundy, thus governing thi-ee of the foui' great 
kingdoms of Charlemagne (map, p. 64). 

Henry III. (1039-5G) elevated the empire to its glory, 
established order, and sought to enforce among the warring 
barons the Truce of God.^ He was early called to Italy, 
where three candidates claimed the papacy. Henry deposed 
them all, placing four Germans successively in the papal 
chair. 

Henry IV. (1056-1106) was only six years old at his 
father's death. Never taught to govern himseK or others, 
he grew up to be fickle, violent, and extravagant. When, at 
the age of fifteen, he became king, his court was a scan- 
dal to Germany. Reckless companions gathered about the 
youthful monarch. Ecclesiastical offices were openly sold. 
Women were to be seen blazing in jewels taken from the 
robes of the priests. His misrule provoked the fierce Saxons 
to revolt, and he subdued the insurrection only with great 
difficulty. Then came the peril of his reign. 

Hildehr'and, the son of a poor carpenter, the monk of 
Cluny, the confidential ad\dser of five popes, now received 
the tiara as Pope Gregory VII. Saint-like in his purity of 
life, iron-willed, energetic, eloquent, he was resolved to re- 
form the Church, and make it supreme. He declared that, 
having apostolic preeminence over kings, he could give and 
withhold crowns at pleasure ; that ecclesiastic offices should 
not be sold ; that no prince should hold a priestly office ; 
that no priest should marry ; and that the Pope alone had 
the right to appoint bishops and invest them with the ring 
and staff, — the emblems of office. 

War of the Investiture. — Henry was unwilling to resign 

1 This ordered the sword to be sheathed each week between Wednesday evening 
and Monday morning, on pain of exeonimunicatiou (Brief Hist. France, p. 42). 



1077.] RISE OF MODERN JSTATION^S — GERMANY. 71 

the right of investiture and demanded that the Pope degrade 
those prelates who had favored the rebels. Gregory on the 
other hand called upon the king to answer to charges 
brought against him by his subjects. Henry closed his 
eyes to the magnitude of the power which the papacy had 
acquired, and summoned at Worms a synod which deposed 
the Pope ; in reply, the Pope excommunicated Henry, and re- 
leased his subjects from their allegiance. Now Henry reaped 
the fruit of his folly and tyranny. The German princes, 
glad of a chance to humble him, threatened to elect a new 
king. Cowed by this general defection, Henry resolved to 
throw himself at the feet of the Pope. He accordingly crossed 
the Alps, not, as his predecessors had done, at the head of 
a mighty army, but as a suppliant, with his faithful wife. 
Bertha, carrying his infant son. Reaching Canossa, the 
king, barefooted, bareheaded, and clad in penitent's garb, 
was kept standing in the snow at the castle gate for three 
days before he was allowed to enter. Then, after yielding 
all to Gregory, he received the kiss of peace. 

But this did not allay the strife in Germany. The princes 
elected Rudolph of Swabia as king, and Gregory finally 
recognized the rival monarch. Henry now pushed on the 
war with vigor, slew Rudolph in battle, invaded Italy, and 
appointed a new Pope. Gregory, forced to take refuge 
among the Normans, died not long after at Salerno. His 
last words were, "I have loved righteousness and hated 
iniquity 5 therefore I die in exile." Hildebrand^s successor, 
however, pursued his plans. The tendency of the best minds 
in Europe was toward papal supremacy. Henry's heart was 
softened by misfortune, and experience taught him wisdom ; 
but he could not regain his power, and he died at last, de- 
throned l3y his unnatural son. 

Henry V (1106-25), on taking the crown, deserted the 



GERMAN EMPIRE d%A&<r^ 

TIME OK ^{^i ^S^'^ A ^^^ 

THEHOHENSTAUFENS V ^ %,. ^ ^ 




1122.] RISE OF MODERN NATIONS — GERMANY. 73 

papal party, and stoutly held his father's position. He 
invaded Italy, and forced Pope Paschal II. to crown him 
emperor. But no sooner had Henry recrossed the Alps, 
than the Pope retracted the concessions, and excommuni- 
cated him. 

The Concordat of ^Yorms (1122) finally settled the difficulty 
by a compromise, the investiture being granted to the Pope, 
and homage for land to the emperor. The war had lasted 
nearly half a century. Though Henry was now at peace 
with the Church, the struggle with the rebelUous nobles 
went on through his life. With him ended the Franconian 
Line. 

Lothaire II. of Saxony, elected king by the princes, 
was crowned emperor by the Pope ; but, after a brief and 
stormy reign, the crown passed to Conrad III. of Swabia, 
who founded 

The Hohenstaufen Line (1138-1254).— He struggled 
long with the Saxons and others who opposed his rule. 
During the siege of Weinsberg,i the rebels raised the war- 
cry of WeJf, — the name of their leader ; and Conrad's army, 
that of WaiUingen, — the birthplace of Frederick of Swabia, 
the king's brother. These cries, corrupted by the Italians 
into Guelf and GhihelUne, were afterward applied to the 
adherents of the Pope and the emperor respectively, and 
for centuries resounded from the Mediterranean to the 
North Sea. Conrad, first of the German emperors, joined 
the Crusaders (p. 94:). He died as he was preparing to 
visit Italy to be crowned emperor. 

1 Conrad, upon the surrender of this city, resolved to destroy it, but consented 
that tlie women might take with them such valuables as tliey could carry on their 
shoulders. When the gates were thrown open, to Conrad's astonisliment there 
appeared a long line of women, each staggering beneath the weiglit of her husband 
or nearest relative. The Swabiau king was so affected by this touching scene that 
he spared the city. 



74 MEDIEVAL PEOPLES. [1152. 



HOUSE OF HOHENSTAUFEN. 



CONK AD III. (1138-52). FREDEllICK OF SWABIA. 

Frederick Barbarossa (1152-90). 



HENRY VI. (1190-97). PHILIP (1197-1208). 

FREdIrICK II. (1215-50). ^^i^ ir SuT^^S 

CONrId IV. (1250-54). ^'''''-''^-^ 
CONRADi;^ (Little Conrad). 



Frederick Barbarossa (the Red Beard), Conrad III.'s 
nephew, was nnanimously chosen king. He proved a 
worthy successor of Charlemagne and Otto I., and his reign 
was one of the most brilliant in the annals of the empire. 
He wielded the royal power with terrible force, established 
order, controlled the dukes, and punished the robber-knights. 
The phantom of the empire, however, allured him into 
Italy. Five times this "German Sennacherib" crossed the 
Alps with magnificent armies, to be wasted by pestilence 
and the sword. He was crowned emperor, but only after 
he had consented to hold the Pope's stirrup. 

TJie Italian cities, grown rich and powerful during the 
Crusades, were jealous of their independent rights. Fre- 
quent wars broke out among them, as in olden Greece, and 
the weaker cities, oppressed by the stronger, appealed to the 
emperor. The strife of Guelf and Ghibelline waxed hot. 
Quarrels arose with the Holy See. Milan was taken by 
Frederick and razed to the ground. The Lombard cities 
leagued against Frederick. Finally, after years of strife, the 
emperor, beaten on the decisive field of Legnano (1176), 
made peace, submitted to the demands of the Pope, and 
granted the Italian cities their municipal rights. After 
this, contentment and peace marked the evening of Fred- 



1176.] RISE OP MODERN NATIONS — GERMANY. 75 

erick's eventful life. He perished in the Third Crusade ^ 
(p. 94). 

Henry VI. (1190-97),2 the Cruel, hastened to Italy, and 
was crowned emperor at Rome ; thence he invaded Naples 
and Sicily, — the inheritance of his wife, — where his rapacity 
recalled the days of the Goths and Vandals. His name is 
associated with Richard the Lion-hearted (p. 95). 

Frederick II. (1215-50) had been chosen King of the 
Romans, but he was a child at his father's death, and was 
quite overlooked in Germany, where rival kings were elected. 
When he became of age, the Pope called on the German 
princes to elect him their monarch. He was accordingly 
crowned king at Aix-la-Chapelle, and emperor at Rome. 
His genius and learning made him " The Wonder of the 
World." He spoke in six languages, was versed in natural 
history and philosophy, and skilled in all knightly accom- 
plishments. More Italian than Teuton, he visited Germany 
only once during thirty years, content to surround himself 
with poets, artists, and sages, in his brilliant Sicilian court. 
But he became involved in quarrels with one pope after 
another ; he was twice excommunicated ; again the Italian 
cities raised the war-cry of Gaelf and GhibelUne, and he 
died in the midst of the long struggle (p. 89). 

The *' Great Interregnum.''— Conrad IV. (1250-54) 
was the last Hohenstaufen king of Germany. Already 
rival monarchs had been chosen, and after him, for nearly 

1 One day while marcliing through Syria, false news was brought him of the 
death of liia son. Tears flowed down his beard, now no longer red, but white. Sud- 
denly springing up, he shouted, " My son is dead, but Christ still lives ! Forward ! " 
—Tradition says that the Red Beard sleeps with his knights in a cavern of the Kyff- 
hauser, near the Hartz, and when " the ravens shall cease to hover about the moun- 
tain, and the pear tree shall blossom in the valle5^," then he shall descend at the 
liead of his Crusaders, bringing back to Germany the golden age of peace and unity. 
The substance of this beautiful dream has been realized in our own day. 

2 Henry had already been chosen successor and crowned " King of the Romans," 
—a title thenceforth borne by th^ heir apparent during an emperor's lifetime. 



76 



MEDIEVAL PEOPLES. 



[13th cent. 



twenty years, the empire had no recognized head. So low 
did German patriotism sink that at one time the crown 
was offered to the highest bidder. Order was now unknown 
outside of city walls. Often during these dark days did the 
common people think of Barbarossa, and sigh for the time 
when he should awake from his long sleep and bring back 
quiet and safety. At last, even the selfish Imrons became 




THE UUBliKlt-KNKillTS. 



convinced that Oermany could not do without a govern- 
ment. The leading princes, who had usurped the right of 
choosing the king, and were hence called Electors (p. 79), 
selected Count Eiulolf of Hapshurg (1273-91). A brave, 
noble-hearted man, he sought to restore order, punish the 
robber-knights, and abolish private wars. 

State of Germany.— The independence of the princes had now 
reached its height. The Hohenstaiif ens, vainly grasping after power in 
Italy, had neglected their German interests, and Frederick II., for the 



RISE OF MODERN NATIONS — GERMANY. 77 

sake of peace, even confirmed the princes in the right they had usurped. 
There were in Germany over sixty free cities, one hundred dukes, 
counts, etc., and one hundred and sixteen spiritual rulers, — in all, more 
than two hundred and seventy-six separate powers. In proof of the 
arrogance of the nobles, it is said that a certain knight, receiving a 
visit from Barbarossa, remained seated in the emperor's presence, say- 
ing that he held his lands in fee of the sun. 

Each nobleman claimed the right of waging war, and, in the little 
district about his castle, was a law to himself. When at peace with 
the neighboring lords, he spent his time in the chase, — tramping over 
the crops, and scouring through the woods, with his retainers and 
dogs. In war he watched for his foes, or attacked some merchant-train 
going to or from a city with which he was at feud. Robber-knights 
sallied out from their mountain fastnesses upon the peaceful traveler, 
and, escaping with their booty to their strongholds, bade defiance to 
the feeble power of the law. 

The Peasants, more than others, needed a central power, able to 
keep the public peace and enforce justice. They were still feudal 
tenants. There was no one to hear their complaints or redress their 
wrongs. The lords, encroaching more and more upon their ancient 
privileges, had robbed them of their common rights over the pastures, 
the wild game, and the fish in the streams, until the peasants had 
become almost slaves. In fine weather they were forced to work for 
their lord, while their own little crops were to be cared for on rainy 
days. Even during their holidays they were required to perform 
various services for the people at the castle. Time and again they 
rose to arms, and, elevating the huudschuli, or peasant's clog, struck 
for liberty. But the nobles and knightly orders, combining, always 
crushed the insurrection with terrible ferocity. 

The Feme was a tribunal of justice that sprang up in Westphalia 
from the old Courts of Counts that Charlemagne established. During 
these troublous times it attained great power and spread far and wide, 
appeals being made to it from all parts of Germany. Its proceedings 
were secret, and the deliberations were often held in desolate places, 
or in some ancient seat of justice, as the famous Linden-tree at Dort- 
mund. Its death-sentence was mysteriously executed ; only the dagger 
with the mark of the Feme, found plunged into the body, told how 
avenging justice had overtaken the criminal. 

The Growth of the Cities was a characteristic of the middle 
ages. They formed a powerful restraint upon the feudal lords. Each 
city was a little free state, fortified and provisioned for a siege. Behind 
its walls the old German love of liberty flourished, and views of life 
were cherished quite different from those of the castle and the court. 
The petty quarrels of the barons disturbed the public peace, injured 



78 MEDIEVAL PEOPLES. [13th cent. 

trade, and forced the merchants to guard their convoys of goods. The 
vassals, constantly escaping from the lords and taking refuge in the 
towns, were a continual source of difference. There w^as, therefore, 
almost perpetual war between the cities and the nobles. The cities, 
compelled to ally themselves for mutual protection, became more and 
more a power in the land. The Rhenish League comprised seventy 
towHS, and the ruins of the robber-knights' fastnesses destroyed by its 
forces still exist along the Rhine, picturesque memorials of those law- 
less times. The Hanseatic League at one period numbered over eighty 
cities, had its own fleets and armies, and was respected by foreign 
kings. The emperors, finding in the strength of the cities a bulwark 
against the bishops and the princes, constantly extended the municipal 
rights and privileges. The free cities had the emperor for their lord, 
were released from other feudal obligations, and made their own laws, 
subject only to his approval. Every citizen was a freeman, bore arms, 
and was eligible to knighthood. Manufactures and trade throve in the 
favoring air of freedom, and merchant-princes became the equals of 
hereditary nobles. 

[From the middle of the 13th to the beginning of the 16th century, 
Germany was unfruitful of great men or great events. Its history for 
two hundred and fifty years presents only a few points of interest. 
The high dignity of the empire ended with the Hohenstauf ens. Hence- 
forth its strongest monarehs were little more than German kings. 
They rarely ventured to cross the Alps, and, when they did so, pro- 
duced only a transient effect ; in time they assumed the title of em- 
peror without the coronation by the Pope. Italy fell aw^ay from the 
imperial control, and Burgundy dropped into the outstretched hands of 
France.] 

Hapsburg or Austrian Line. ^—Rudolf renounced 
the rights of the Hohenstauf ens m Italy, declaring that Rome 
was like a lion's den, to which the tracks of many animals 
led, bnt from which none returned. Having acquired Aus- 
tria, St;yT:"ia, and Carniola, he conferred these provinces on 
his son, Albert I. (1298-1308), thus laying the foundation of 
the futm-e greatness of the House of Hapsburg, or Austria. 
From the time of Albert 11. (1438-39) until Napoleon broke 
up the empire (p. 257), the electors chose as emperors, with 

1 The House of Hapsburg was so named from Rudolf's castle upon the banks of 
the Aar in Switzerland. 



1414.] RISE OF MODERN NATIONS — GERMANY. 79 

a single exception, a member of this family, and generally 
its head. Thus Austria gave its strength to the empire, 
and, in tm-n, the empire gave its dignity to the Hapsburgs. 
Albert's father-in-law, Sigismmid (1410-37), before he was 
raised to the imperial throne, was King of Hungary, and 
then began the close connection of Austria with that court. 

The Golden BulP (1356) was a charter granted by 
Charles IV., fixing the electors, and the mode of choosing 
the emperors. It confirmed the custom of having seven 
electors, — four temporal and three spiritual lords. The elec- 
tion was to take place at Frankfort, and the coronation at 
Aix-la-ChapeUe. The electors were granted sovereign rights 
within their territories, their persons declared sacred, and 
appeals to the emperor denied, save when justice was refused. 
This decree diminished the confusion which had hitherto 
attended the election of kings, but it made the electors the 
most powerful persons in the empire, stimulated other 
princes to acquire similar privileges, and perpetuated the 
fatal divisions of Germany. 

The first university of Germany was founded at Prague by 
Charles IV. ; it became so famous as soon to number seven 
thousand students. 

The Council of Constance (1414) was caUed by Sigis- 
mund, following the example of Constantine in convening the 
famous Council of Nice (Anc. Peo., p. 265). This was the era 
of the " Great Schism," and the object of the council was to 
settle the dispute between three different claimants for the 
papal chair. Nearly five thousand clergymen, including car- 
dinals and bishops, with a vast concourse of the chief vassals 
of the Crown, learned men, knights, and ambassadors from 
the Christian powers, were present. A new Pope, Martin V., 
was chosen, and he took his seat as successor of Gregory XII. 

I So named from the knob of gold (bulla aurea) which inclosed the seaL 



80 MEDIEVAL PEOPLES. [15th CENT. 

John Russ, rector of the university at Prague, who had 
adopted the views of Wycliffe, the English reformer, and 
attacked certain doctrines of the Church, was summoned to 
appear before tlie council. Under a safe-conduct from the 
emperor, Huss came ; but he was tried, convicted of heresy, 
and burned at the stake (1415).i His ashes were thrown 
into the Rhine to prevent his followers from gathering 
them. The next year, Jerome of Prague, who brought 
Wycliffe's writings to the university, suffered death in the 
same place. 

Hussite War (1419-35). — The Bohemians, roused to 
fury by the death of their favorite teacher and by subse- 
quent persecutions, flew to arms. Under Ziska, "the One- 
eyed," they learned to strike unerringly with their farmers' 
flails, to wield heavy iron maces, and to shelter themselves 
behind wagons bound with chains. The emperor's troops 
fled before them, often without a blow. It was sixteen 
years before Bohemia was subdued. 

House of HohenzoUern. — Sigismund, being in want 
of money, sold Brandenburg and its electoral dignity for 
four hundred thousand gold florins, to Frederick, Count of 
HohenzoUern (1415). The new elector vigorously ruled 
his possession, with gunpowder battered down the " castle 
waUs, fourteen feet thick," of the robber-knights, and re- 
stored order and quiet. His descendants to-day occupy the 
throne of Prussia. 

The Diet of Worms (1495), summoned by Maximilian 

1 When addressing the council, Sigismund said, " Date operani, ut ilia nefanda 
schisma eradicetur." Upon a cardinal remarking to him that "schisma" is of the 
neuter gender, he replied, " I am king of the Romans and above grammar ! " -When 
the executioner was about to light the pile from behind, Jerome called out, " Set in 
front; had I dreaded fire I should not have been here." Sylvius (afterward Pope 
Pius II.), in his History of Bohemia, says, "Both Huss and Jerome made haste to 
the fire as if they were invited to a feast ; when they began to burn, they sang a 
hymn, and scarcely could the flames and the crackling of the fire stop their 
Singing," 



RISE OF MODERN NATIONS — SWITZERLAND. 81 

(1493-1519), decreed a Perpetual Peace, abolished the right 
of private war, and established the Imperial Chamber of 
Justice, with power to declare the ban of the empire. In 
order to carry out the decisions of this body, Maximilian 
divided the empire into Te)i Circles, each having its tribunal 
for settling disputes. He also founded the AuUc Council, or 
court of appeal from the lower courts in Germany. The old 
Roman law rapidly came into use in these tribunals. There 
was now a promise of order in this distracted country. 

Maximilian's Marriage with Mary of Burgundy, the 
beautiful daughter of Charles the Bold (p. 64), added her 
rich dower to the House of Austria. 

The End of the Middle Ages was marked by the 
reign of Maximilian, and this monarch is known in Ger- 
man history as the "Last of the Knights." Gunpowder 
had changed the character of war, printing was invented, 
feudal forms and forces were dying out, and Christopher 
Columbus had discovered America. 

IV. SWITZER LAN D. 

Origin. — The confederation of the three Forest Can- 
tons — Schwyz, Uri, and Unterwalden — clustered about the 
beautiful lake of Lucerne was the germ of Switzerland. 
They were German lands owing allegiance to the emperor, 
and their league for mutual defense was like that of other 
districts and cities of the empire. Rudolf, himself a Swiss 
count, had estates in these cantons, and, being popular with 
his former neighbors, was chosen as their protector; but 
the tyranny of his son Albert, the Duke of Austria, when he 
became emperor, roused these brave mountaineers to assert 
their independence.^ Three great battles mark the succes- 
sive stages in their struggle for liberty. 

1 One November uight in 1307, a little company met under the open sky and 



82 MEDIAEVAL PEOPLES. 

Battle of Morgarten (1315). — Albert was assassi- 
nated while marching to crush the rising, but his successor, 
Leopold, Duke of Austria, invaded Switzerland with an army 
of fifteen thousand men, ostentatiously bearing ropes for 
hanging the chief rebels. The Swiss, only thirteen hundred 
in all, after a day of fasting and prayer, took post in the 
defile of Morgarten, — the Thermopylae of Switzerland. 
Fifty outlaws, denied the pri\Tlege of fighting with the 
main body, were stationed on a cliff overlooking the en- 
trance. When the heavy-armed cavalry were weU in the 
pass, the band of exiles suddenly let fall an avalanche of 
stones and timber. Tliis throwing the Austrian column 
into confusion, the Swiss rushed down with their halberts 
and iron-shod clubs. The flower of the Austrian chivalry 
feU. on that ill-fated day. Leopold liimseK escaped only by 
the aid of a peasant, who led him through by-paths over 
the mountain. 

Battle of Sempach (1386). — About seventy years 
had passed, when Leopold — nephew of him who fought at 
Morgarten — sought to subdue the League. He found the 
patriots posted near the little lake of Sempach. The Aus- 
trian knights, dismounting, formed a solid body clad in armor 
from head to foot, and with long projecting spears. The 

solemnly swore to defend their liberty. This was the birthday of Swiss independ- 
ence. The next New Year's was tixed for the uprising. Meanwhile Gessler, an Ans- 
trian governor, set up a hat in the market place of Altdorf, and commanded all to bow 
to it in homage. Tradition says that William Tell, passing by with his little son, re- 
fused this obeisance. Brought before Gessler, he was doomed to die vmless he could 
shoot an arrow through an apple placed on his boy's liead. Tell pierced the apple, 
but the tyrant, noticing a second arrow concealed in hi.s belt, asked its purpose. 
"For thee," was the reply, "if the first had struck my son." Enraged, Gessler 
ordered liim to a prison upon the opposite shore of the lake. While crossing, a storm 
arose, and iu the extremity of the danger Gessler unloosed Tell, hoping by his skill to 
reach land. As they neared the rocky shore, Tell leaped out, and, hiding in the glen, 
shot Gessler as he passed. — This romantic story is now believed by critics to be a 
mere fiction ; but the tradition lingers in the minds of the people, and every traveler 
in Switzerland is still shown the chapel that stands upon tlie rock to which the hero 
leaped from Gessler's boat. 



RISE OF MODERN NATIONS — SWITZERLAND. 83 

Swiss, first dropping on tlieir knees and offering prayer, 
advanced to the charge. But the forest of spears resisted 
every attack. Sixty of their little band had fallen, and not 
one of the enemy had received a wound. At this crisis, 
Arnold Von Winkelried rushed forward, shouting, "I will 
open a way; take care of my wife and children." Then, 
suddenly gathering in his arms as many spears as he could 
reach, he buried them in his bosom and bore them to the 
ground. The wall of steel was broken. His comrades 
rushed over his body to victory. 

Another triumph at JVafels, two years later, and the Swiss 
confederates were left undisturbed for many years. 

Growth of the Confederacy. — Lucerne, Berne, and 
other cities early joined the League; in the middle of 
the 14th century it comprised the so-called Mght Ancient 
Cantons. The victory over Charles the Bold greatly 
strengthened the Swiss confederation. Swiss soldiers were 
henceforth in demand, and thousands left the homely fare 
and honest simplicity of their native land to enlist as mer- 
cenaries under the banners of neighboring princes. 

At the end of the 15th century, Maximilian sought to 
restore the imperial authority over the Swiss, but failed, and 
by an honorable peace practically acknowledged their inde- 
pendence, though it was not formally granted until the 
Treaty of Westphalia (p. 179) .i 

1 It is carious that though the names Swiss and Switzerland, derived from that 
of the chief canton, early came into use, thej^ were not formally adopted until the 
niueteentU century. 



84 MEDIEVAL PEOPLES. 



ITALY IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 

Italy in the 10th Century, after the fall of the Car- 
lovingians, was a scene of frightful disorder. A crowd of 
petty sovereignties sprang up, and the rival dukes disputed 
for their titles with dagger and poison. When Otto the 
Great restored the Holy Roman Empire, the fortunes of 
Italy became blended with those of Germany. During the 
long contest between the Pope and the emperor, the feudal 
lords and the cities sided with either as best suited their 
interest. For centuries the strife of Guelf and Ghibelline 
convulsed the peninsula. 

Power of the Popes. — We have seen how, upon the 
ruins of Pagan Rome, the Church founded a new empire. 
Many causes combined to extend her power. Amid the 
gloom of the dark ages, the lights of learning and piety 
burned brightly within monastery walls. The convents and 
their lands were isles of peace in a sea of violence and wrong. 
The monks of St. Benedict divided their time among acts 
of devotion, copying of manuscripts, and tilling of land. 
Education was almost forgotten by the laity. The clergy 
alone could read and write, as well as use the Latin lan- 
guage, — then the general medium of communication among 
different nations. Priests were therefore the teachers, secre- 
taries, and ambassadors of kings. 

The Church afforded a refuge to the oppressed. None 
was too lowly for her sympathy, while the humblest man 
in her ranks could rise to the highest office of trust and 
honor. When feudalism was triumphant, and kings were too 
weak and men too ignorant to oppose it, hers was the only 
power that could restrain the fierce baron, and enforce the 
Truce of God. With the gift of Pepin, the Pope became a 



1000.] ITALY IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 85 

political prince, and as such continued to extend his Italian 
possessions. 

The 11th century brought a great increase of papal power. 
A current behef (founded on Rev. xx. 1-7) that the world 
would come to an end in the year 1000 checked the ravages 
of war. Lands and money were freely bestowed upon the 
Church, and when the time passed and the world still stood, 
men's hearts, touched even through their coats of mail, 
softened with gratitude, and king and lord vied in erecting 
magnificent cathedrals, whose ruins are to-day the admira- 
tion of the world. The Crusades also greatly strengthened 
the power of the Pope (p. 91). 

For centuries a command from Rome was obeyed through- 
out Christendom. When Pepin wished to depose the do- 
nothing sovereign, he appealed to Rome for permission; 
when Charlemagne was to take the title of emperor, it 
was the Pope who placed the crowTi upon his head ; when 
William the Conqueror desired to invade England, he first 
secured permission from the Pope 5 when Henry II. longed 
for Ireland, Adrian IV. granted it to him on the ground 
that aU islands belonged to the Holy See; and so late 
even as 1493, Pope Alexander VI. divided between the 
Spanish and the Portuguese their discoveries in the New 
World. 

The papal power, however, reached its zenith in the begin- 
ning of the 13th century, under Innocent III. He acquired 
independent sovereignty in Italy, gave to Peter of Aragon 
his kingdom as a fief, compelled Philip Augustus of France 
to receive back the wife he had put away, crushed the 
Albigenses, and imposed a tribute upon John of England. 
He claimed to be an earthly king of kings, and the papal 
thunder, enjoining peace and punishing public and private 
offenses, rolled over every nation in Europe. 



86 MEDIEVAL PEOPLES. 

The decline of the papal power was made evident in the 
14th centuiy by the residence of the popes in France, known 
in church history as the Babylonish captivity (1305-77). 
Thus the contest between Boniface VIII. and Philip IV. 
ended very differently from the war of investitui-e between 
Henry IV. and Gregory VII. 

The 15th century is noted for its ecclesiastical councils. 
To these some of the monarchs appealed from the decisions 
of the Holy See. The Councils of Constance and Basle 
sought to change the government of the Church from an 
absolute to a hmited sovereignty. Charles VII. of France, 
by a national assembty, adopted several decrees of the latter 
council; and the Pragmatic Sanction, as this was termed, 
rendered the GaUican Church more independent and na- 
tional. The tendency to resist the papal authority was 
now increasing rapidly throughout Europe. The weakness 
caused by the Great Schism in\dted opposition, and Rome 
was forced to confine its political action mainly to Itahan 
affairs. 

Italian Cities. — With the decline of the imperial rule in 
Italy, many of its cities, hke those of olden Greece, became 
free, strong, and powerful. Four especially — Venice, Flor- 
ence, Pisa, and Genoa — attained great importance. The 
Italian ships brought thither the rich products of the East, 
and her merchants, called Lombards,^ distributed them 
over Europe. The trading princes of Genoa and Venice 
controlled the money of the world, and became the first 
bankers, — the bank of Venice dating from 1171. The 
progress of commerce and manufacture made these inde- 
pendent cities, in the elegance of their buildings and the 

1 The street in London where these merchants settled is still known as Lom- 
■bard Street. The three balls— the sign of a pawnbroker's shop— are the arms 
of Lombardy, having been assumed when the Lombards were the money-lenders of 
Europe. 



ITALY IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 



87 



extent of tlieir wealth, the rivals of any nation of their time, 



and their aUiance was ea- 
gerly sought by the most 
powerful kings. 

Venice was founded in 
the 5th century by refu- 
gees from Attila's invasion 



^^^£X 




SCENES m VENICE. 

(Anc. Peo., p. 269); her ruler was a 
Doge; her patron saint was St. 
Mark. The Queen of the Adriatic 
early became a great naval power, 
rendered valuable assistance in 

aomiLL ur-i 

transporting the Crusaders, carried 
on sanguinary wars with Genoa, and finally reigned su- 
preme in the Mediterranean. 



gg MEDIEVAL PEOPLES. 

In the 14th and 15th centuries the government grew into 
an oppressive oHgarchy, the secret Council of Ten., like the 
Spartan Ephors, controlling the Doge and holding the 
threads of life and death. The dagger, the poisoned ring, 
the close gondola, the deep silent canal, the Bridge of Sighs, 
and the secret ceU beyond, — all linger in the mysterious his- 
tory of the time. But the golden period of her commerce 
passed when Vasco da Gama rounded the Cape of Good 
Hope, and discovered a new route to the Indies. 

Florence, originally a colony of Roman soldiers, in the 
13th century became one of the chief cities of Italy. Wliile 
Venice, like Sparta of old, had an aristocratic government, 
that of Florence resembled democratic Athens. The Flor- 
entine jewelers, goldsmiths, and bankers brought the city 
renown and wealth. The citizens were curiously organized 
into companies or guilds of the different trades and profes- 
sions, with consuls, banners, and rules of government. In 
case of any disturbance, the members raUied about their 
respective standards. 

The Family of the Medici {mecVe-che), during the 15th 
century, obtained control in the state, though without 
changing the form of government. Cosmo de' Medici (the 
'^ Father of his Country''), his grandson Lorenzo the Mag- 
nificent, and Giovanni (better known as Pope Leo X.^), 
patronized literary men and artists, encouraged the copying 
of manuscripts, and revived a knowledge of the treasures of 



1 Leo X., second son of Lorenzo the Magnificent, was born, 1475; created car- 
dinal, 1488; and elected Pope, 1513. He died in 1521. Leo was a munificent patron 
of the arts, and so great were the obligations of men of genius to liis tact and gener- 
osity, tliat this brilliant period, one of the brightest in the annals of Europe, is 
known as The Medicean Era. "We maj' confidently assert," saj's an eminent liis- 
torian, "that all that is most beautiful in the architecture, sculpture, or painting of 
modern art falls witliin this brief period." Music also, of which Leo was a passion- 
ate lover, was now given more scientitic cultivation; classical study was revived; 
and the first dramas written in the Italian language were produced in the august 
papal presence. 



ITALY IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 89 

Grecian architecture, sculpture, poetry, and philosophy. 
The study of the antique masterpieces led to the founding 
of a new school of art, known as the Italian 'Renaissance. 
In this brilliant period of Florentine history flourished 
Michael Angelo, — poet, sculptor, and painter ; the renowned 
artists Raphael and Leonardo da Vinci ; and the famous 
reformer Savonarola, afterward burned for heresy. 

The Two Sicilies.— After Charlemagne's time the 
Arabs conquered Sicily. In the 11th century — that era of 
Norman adventure — the Normans invaded southern Italy, 
and seized the lands held by the Saracens and the Eastern 
emperor. They finally subdued Naples and Sicily, and 
founded the kingdom of the Two Sicilies: so a '^French- 
speaking king ruled over Arabic-speaking Mohammedans 
and Greek-speaking Christians." 

The crown was transferred to the Hohenstaufens by the 
marriage of its heiress, Constance, to the emperor Henry VI. 
The polished court of Frederick 11. made Naples the center 
of civihzation and culture ; but the youthful Conradin — the 
last heir of the Hohenstaufens — perished on the scaffold in 
its market place, in full sight of the beautiful inheritance he 
had lost so untimely. 

The kingdom then feU to the papal nominee, Charles of 
Anjou, brother of St. Louis of France. The Sicilians, how- 
ever, hated the French for their tyi-anny ; and one day a 
soldier, by insulting a bride in the cathedral, enraged the 
populace to a revolt. As the vesper-beU rang on Easter 
Monday, 1282 (a date known as that of the Sicilian Vespers) 
the ever-ready Italian stiletto leaped from its sheath ; scarcely 
a Frenchman survived the horrible massacre that followed. 
The Two Sicilies afterward remained separate until (1435) 
they were united under Alfonso V. of Aragon. 

Home was naturally the focus of the long strife between 



90 



MEDIEVAL PEOPLES. 



Ghibellines and Guelf s, and thither the German kings came, 
arms in hand, to demand the imperial crown. Dnring the 
Babylonish .captivity the city was convnlsed by deadly 
fends between the noble families of the Orsini, Colonna, and 

Savelli. The 
famons monu- 
ments of the 
elder Rome — 
the Arch of 
Titns and the 
Colossenm — 
were fortified 
as the strong- 
holds of rival 
clans. At this 
time, Rienzi 
sought to re- 
vive the an- 
cient republic 
(1347). Of 
humble origin, 
he was the 
friend of Pe- 
poet, and possessed 
Tim AHCH OP TITUS. ^ ^^^^ eloqucuce that moved 

the masses. Elected tribune, he ruled for seven months, 
but, forgetting the simpHcity of the olden time, he dressed 
in silk and gold, and was preceded by heralds with silver 
trumpets to announce his ajDproach. The nobles rose 
against him, the people fell away, and the "Last of the 
Tribunes" was slain m a street riot. 




THE CRUSADES. 



91 



THE CRUSADES (1095-1270). 

Origin. — Palestine, the land made sacred for all time 
by its religious history, had, from the earliest ages of the 
Church, a strong attraction for believers. A pilgrimage to 
Jerusalem, or other hallowed spot, became the most popular 
of penances. In the general belief, to atone for the greatest 




THE MARCH. 



sin, one had only to bathe in the Jordan, or spend a night 
on Calvary. The number of pilgrims increased about the 
year 1000, many desiring to await in the Holy Land " the 
coming of the Lord." The Saracens welcomed the pilgrims 5 
bat the Turks (p. 24), who afterward seized Palestine, in- 
flicted upon them every outrage that fanaticism could invent. 
Each returning palmer told a fresh tale of horror. Peter 



92 



MEDIAEVAL PEOPLES. 



[11th cent. 



the Hermit, stirred by what he saw in Jerusalem, resolved 
to rescue the Holy Sepulcher. With bare head and feet, 
dressed in a coarse robe tied with a cord, bearing a crucifix 
in his hand, and riding an ass, this fierce monk traversed 
Italy and France. Pope Urban 11. supported his burning 
appeals. At a council held at Clermont, the assembled mul- 
titude shouted with one impulse, "God wills it ! " Thou- 
sands volunteered for the holy war, and fastened to their 

garments the red cross 

If 



— the symbol of this 
sacred vow. 
The First Crusade 

(1096) ^ numbered over 
half a million fighting 
men under Godfrey, 
Duke of Bouillon. There 
were one hundred thou 
sand steel-clad knights, 
including such nobles as 
Robert of Normandy, 
eldest son of William 
the Conqueror ; Bohe- 
mond, son of Robert 
Guiscard, the Norman 

founder of the kingdom of Sicily ; Hugh, brother of PhiHp I. 

of France ; and Tancred, next to Godfrey, the pattern of 

chivalry. 




THE TOMB OF GOUFKEY DE BOUILLON. 



1 Prior to this, Peter the Hermit, and a poor kuight named Walter the Penniless, 
set olf with a motley rabble of three hundred thousand men, women, and children. 
Without order or discipline, they crossed Europe, robbing the iuliabitants and killing 
the Jews wherever they went. So great was the delusion, that farmers took their 
families with them in carts drawn by oxen ; and the children, carrying mimic 
swords, sported about, and shouted, whenever they saw a castle or town, "Isn't that 
Jerusalem ?" Thousands of the fanatical crowd were slain en route by the outraged 
people. The pitiable remnant fell beneath the Turkish saber, and their bleached 
bones served to fortify the camp of the Second Crusaders. 



1096.] THE CRUSADES. 93 

This great army poured into Constantinople.^ The em- 
peror Alexis quickly passed his unwelcome guests into Asia. 
Nice and Antioch were captured after bloody sieges. Final- 
ly the Crusaders, reduced to only twenty thousand men, ap- 
proached Jerusalem. Wlien they came in sight of the Holy 
City, the hardy warriors burst into tears, and in a transport 
of joy kissed the earth. It was forty days before they could 
pull down the Crescent from the walls.^ Then, forgetting 
the meekness of the Saviour whose tomb they were seeking, 
and in spite of Godfrey's and Tancred's protests, they mas- 
sacred seventy thousand infidels, and burned the Jews in 
their synagogue. As evening came 
on, while the streets still ran with 
blood, they threw oif their helmets, 
bared their feet, entered the Church 
of the Holy Sepulcher, sang hymns 
of praise, and partook of the com- 
munion. 

Godfrey was now elected King of 
Jerusalem, but he refused to wear a ^'^^^ °" ™^^ tkmplars.3 
crown of gold where his Master had borne one of thorns. 
He was therefore styled Baron of the Holy Sepulcher : on 
his death the crown fell to Baldwin, his brother. War was 
continually waged between the Christians in the Holy City 
and their Mohammedan neighbors. During these contests 
there arose two famous military religious orders, — the Hospi- 
tallers, who wore a white cross on a black mantle, and the 
Templars, whose badge was a red cross on a white mantle. 
They vowed obedience, celibacy, and poverty j to defend 

1 Tlie haughty Teutons looked with contempt on the effeminate Greeks, and a 
rough baron rudely ascended the imperial throne, and sat down beside the monarch. 

2 Jerusalem had been wrested from the Turks by the Saracenic caliph of Egypt. 

3 Two knights on one horse, to indicate the original poverty of the order. It after- 
ward became rich and corrupt (p. 64). 




94 MEDIEVAL PEOPLES. [12th CENT. 

pilgrims; and to be the first in battle and the last in 
retreat. 

Second Crusade (1147). — Half a century passed, when 
the swarming Saracens seemed about to overwhelm the httle 
Frank kingdom in Palestine. St. Bernard now preached 
a new crusade. Louis VII. of France and Conrad III. of 
Germany led across Europe three hundred thousand men.^ 
But the treacherous emperor of the East cut oif their food, 
and betrayed the Germans to the Turks amid the mountains 
of Cappadocia. The French, more as pilgrims than soldiers, 
reached Jerusalem, and, Conrad having joined Louis, the 
two monarchs laid siege to Damascus. Beaten back from 
its walls, they abandoned the crusade in humiliation. 

Third Crusade (1189). — Forty years elapsed, when the 
Egyptian sultan, Saladin, chief of Moslem warriors for 
courage and courtesy, took Jerusalem. The news con- 
vulsed Europe with grief. Richard Co?ur de Lion, Philip 
Augustus, and Frederick Barbarossa assumed the Cross. 
Frederick took a magnificent army across Hungary. 
While marching through Asia Minor, in attempting to 
swim a swoUen stream, he was drowned. 

Richard and Philip, conveying their troops by sea, had 
captured Acre — the key to Palestine — when the French 
king, jealous of the Lion-hearted's prowess and fame,^ re- 



1 Louis was accompaniefl by Queen Eleanor (afterward divorced, and married to 
Henry II., p. 50), leading a body of women clad in knightly array; and Conrad was 
followed by a similar band, whose chief, with her gilt spurs and buskins, was called 
the Golden-footed Dame. 

2 The fame of Richard's valor lingered long in the East. Mothers stilled their 
children by uttering his dreaded name ; and, when the Moslem and Christian host 
had been dust for many years, horsemen would sliout to a shying steed, " Dost thou 
think it is King Richard?" In thousands of English homes, men idolized the Lion- 
hearted, in spite of his cruelty, the uselessness of his triumphs, and the weakness of 
his reign. Saladin's admiration, too, was roused by Richard's valor. In the midst 
of battle, his brother sent to beg of the English king the honor of knightliood ; and 
when Philip and Ricliard lay tossing with fever in their tents before Acre, their 
generous foe forwarded them presents of pears and snow. 



12th cent.] 



THE CiiUSADES. 



95 



turned home. Richard pressed on, and at last reached a 
hill whence he could see Jerusalem, twenty miles away. 
Hesitating to attack the city, he covered his face and sadly 
turned back, declaring that he who was " unwilling to rescue 
was unworthy to view the sepnlcher of Christ." 

On his return through Germany, Richard was thrown into 
prison by Leopold, Duke of Austria, whom he had grievously 
insulted in Palestine. 
After a time he was 
turned over to the 
German emperor, 
Henry yi. The Eng- 
lish people, to ransom 
their gallant king, 
were forced to give 
one fourth of their 
incomes, and even to 
pawn the church 
plate. 

This was the last 
crusade that reached 
Palestine in force. 
The subsequent ex- 
peditions were direcf- 
ed to other objects. 

The Fourth Cru- 
sade (1202) consisted 
of French and Ger- 
mans, under the Count of Flanders. Transports were obtained 
from the Venetians by agreeing to take Zara, a city of Dalma- 
tia, for the Doge. The Crusaders next sailed for Constanti- 
nople to restore its dethroned emperor Isaac. They stormed 
the city, plundered its palaces, and destroyed its precious 




96 



MEDIEVAL PEOPLES, 



[13th cent. 



monuments. A Latin empire was now established at Con- 
stantinople. This lasted half a century, and there seemed a 
hope of reuniting the Eastern and the Western Church ; but 
the Greeks recovered the Byzantine capital (1261). 
The Fifth Crusade ^ (1218), led by the King of Hungary, 

was finally directed to 
Egypt, as it was thought 
that the conquest of that 
country would be a step 
toward the recovery of 
Palestine. It ended in 
defeat. 




ST. LOUIS LANDING IN EGYPT. 



lM/?3:^ 



The Sixth Crusade (1228) was a pacific one. The Ger- 
man emperor Frederick II., although under an interdict 

1 The Chiiaien's Crusaue (1212) well illustrates tlie wil<l folly of the times. Thirty 
thonaaiul French boys, led by a peasant youth named Stephen, after innumerable 
hardsliips, reached Marseilles. Here they were induced by unscrupulous traders to 
take ship. Instead of going to Palestine, they landed in Africa, and large numbers 
of these unhappy children were sold as slaves in the Saracen markets. 



13th cent.] the crusades. 97 

from the Pope, went to Palestine, by a treaty with the sul- 
tan freed Jerusalem and Bethlehem from the Infidels, and, 
entering the Holy City, crowned himself king. A few years 
later, a horde of Asiatic Turks, fleeing before the Mongols 
under Genghis Khan (p. 99), overwhelmed the country. 

The Seventh and Eighth Crusades (1249, 1270) 
were conducted by St. Louis. In the fii-st expedition he 
landed in Egypt, but was taken prisoner, and his release 
secured only by a heavy ransom ; in the second, he went to 
Tunis, with the wild hope of baptizing its Mohammedan king. 
Instead of making a proselyte, he found a grave. With the 
death of St. Louis the spirit of the Crusades expired. 
Soon after, the Mohammedans recaptured Acre, — the last 
Christian stronghold in Palestine. 

Effects of the Crusades. — Though these vast military expeditions 
had failed of their direct object, they had produced marked results. 
By staying the tide of Mohammedan conquest, they doubtless saved 
Europe from the horrors of Saracenic invasion. Commerce had received 
a great impulse, and a profitable trade had sprung up between the 
East and the West. The Italian cities had grown rich and powerful ; 
while the European states, by coming into contact with the more 
polished nations of the East, had gained refinement and culture. 

Many a haughty and despotic baron had been forced to grant munici- 
pal rights to some city, or to sell land to some rich merchant, in order 
to procure funds for his outfit ; thus there slowly grew up, between 
the lord and the peasant, a strong middle class. 

As the popes led in the Crusades, their influence increased immensely 
during this period. The departing crusaders received special privi- 
leges from the Church, while their person and property were under 
its immediate protection. Many knights willed their estates to a 
neighboring monastery, and, as few returned from the East, the 
Church thus acquired vast wealth. 



98 



MEDIEVAL PEOPLES. 



THE MOORS IN SPAIN. 

After the Moorish Conquest the conquered Visi- 
goths found refuge among the mountains of Asturias. 
Gradually they gained strength, and began to win back the 
land of their fathers. Nowhere was the crusade against the 
Saracen waged more gallantly. Early in the 18th century 
there were firmly estabUshed in the peninsula four Christian 
kingdoms, — Portugal, Aragon, CastUe, and Navarre, — while 
the Moorish power had shrunk to the single province of 



;^ ""'X. 




IBERIAN 
PENINSULA. 

15TH CENTURY 



Granada. The free constitutions of Aragon and Castile 
guaranteed the liberties of the people, and in the Cortes, or 
national assemblies of these kingdoms, the third estate se- 
cured a place long before representation was granted the 
commons of any other European country. The marriage 
of Ferdinand of Ai-agon and Isabella of Castile (1469) laid 



1492.] ASIA IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 99 

the foundation of the Spanish power. These illustrious 
sovereigns resolved to expel the Infidels from their last 
stronghold. Town after town was taken. The old Moorish 
castles and towers, impregnable to battering-ram or cata- 
pult, crumbled before the cannon of the Spanish engineers. 
Finally, as Ferdinand said, the time came '^ to pick out the 
last seed of the Moorish pomegranate."^ The city of 
Granada was invested. After an eight-months' siege, King 
Abdallah gave up the keys of the Alliambra.^ It was now 
1492, the year of the discovery of America. 

ASIA IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 

The principal Asiatic nations which influenced history 
during this period were the Mongols and the Turks, — Tar- 
tar races whose home was on the vast plateau of mid- Asia. 

The Mongols came into prominence in the 13th cen- 
tury, under Genghis Khan. This chief of a mere petty 
horde subdued the neighboring tribes, and then organized 
and disciplined the entire body of Tartars into one enor- 
mous army of horsemen. The result was appalling. The 
world had not seen since the time of Alexander such expedi- 
tions as this incomparable cavalry now made. If Attila was 
in Europe the " Scourge of God," much more did Genghis 
in Asia deserve that epithet Fifty thousand cities, with 
their treasures of art, and five million human lives, were sac- 
rificed to his thirst for plunder and power. The sons and 
grandsons of Genghis followed up his conquests, until the 
Mongol Empire finally reached from the Pacific Ocean to 
the banks of the Vistula in Poland. 

1 Granada is the Spanish word for pomegranate. 

2 The fallen monarch, riding away, paused upon a rock stUl known as the " Last 
sigh of the Moor" to take a final view of the beautiful country and the "j)earl of 
palaces " which he had lost. As he burst into tears, his mother exclaimed, " It befits 
you to bewail like a woman what you could not defend like a man." 



100 MEDIEVAL PEOPLES. [1402. 

This mighty empire fell in pieces during the next century ; 
but about 1369 there arose a descendant of Genghis named 
Timour, or Tamerlane, who sought to reunite the Mongol 
conquests. He conquered Great Tartary and Persia, and 
invaded India, — crossing the Indus where Alexander did. 
Turning thence into Asia Minor, he defeated the sultan of 
the Ottoman Turks, Bajazet (Lightning), upon the plains of 
Angora (1402) ; but afterward, marching to invade China, 
he died en route. His armies and empire quickly melted 
away. The track of the ferocious conqueror in his devas- 
tating path across Asia was marked by the pyramids of 
human heads he erected as monuments of his victories. 

Baler — a descendant of Tamerlane — followed up the con- 
quest of India, and estabhshed his capital at Delhi. There 
the ^' Great Moguls" long ruled in magnificence, erecting 
mosques and tombs that are yet the admiration of the trav- 
eler. The last of the Mogul emperors died almost in our 
own day, being still prayed for in every mosque in India, 
though confined to his palace by the English army, and liv- 
ing upon an English pension. 

The Turks.— (1) The Seljulcian TurTcs, about the time 
of the Norman Conquest, captm'ed Bagdad, and their chief 
received from the caliph the high-sounding title of Com- 
mander of the Faithful. In 1076 they seized Jerusalem, 
where theii- brutal treatment of the pilgrims caused, as we 
have seen, the Crusades. The fragments of this first Turk- 
ish Empire were absorbed in the dominions of Genghis Khan. 
(2) The Ottoman TurJcs were so named from Othman 
(1299-1326), the founder of their empire. His son Orchan 
created the famous force of Janizaries ^ (new troops), and a 

1 The stoutest and handsomest of the captive youth were selected annually for 
service in the army. Educated in the religion of their masters and trained to arms, 
they formed a powerful body-guard, like the Praetorian Guard of Rome. It was the 
terror of Europe. 



15th cent.] fall of CONSTANTINOPLE. 



101 



body of his warriors, crossing the Hellespont, gained a foot- 
ing on European soil, — the first in Turkish history (1356) ; 
his grandson Amurath captured Adiianople; his great- 
grandson, Bajazet, in the battle of Nicopolis (1396), routed 
the chivahy of Hungary and France, ravaged Greece, and 
was finally checked only by the dreaded Tamerlane. 

Half a century afterward, Mohammed II., mth over 250,- 
000 Turks, besieged Constantinople. ArtiUery of unwonted 
size and power battered its walls for fifty-three days. The 
Janizaries at length burst through. The emperor Constan- 
tine, the last of the Caesars, was slain, sword in hand, in the 
breach ; and the Byzantine Empire, that had lasted over a 
thousand years, feU to rise no more. The Crescent now 
replaced the Cross on the dome of St. Sophia. 

The fall of Constantinople (1453) marks the close of the 
middle ages ; but there was a transition period from the mid- 
dle ages to modern history, the length and date of which 
varied among the different nations. Each people had its 
own dawn and sunrise, and for itself entered into the day of 
modern civilization and progress. 




MOHAMMEDAN EMBLEMS. 



102 



MEDIAEVAL PEOPLES, 



MEDIJEVAL CIVILIZATION. 

Rise of Feudalism. — The Roman government had sometimes 
gi'anted lands on condition of military service ; the Franks followed 
a chief as their personal lord. Out of these two old-time customs there 
grew^ up a new system which w^as destined to influence society and 
politics throughout Europe for centuries. This was 

The Feudal System.— We have seen how the brave freemen who 
followed the Teuton chief shared in the land acquired by conquest, 
each man's portion being called his Allod (from od, an estate), and 
becoming his personal property. But in those troublous times men 




SERFS OF THE 12TH CENTURY (FROM MS. OF THE TIME.) 

had to fight to retain what they had won. So it came to pass 
that a king, instead of keeping a great standing army to guard his 
scattered possessions or to prosecute foreign wars, granted a part of 
his estates as fiefs or feuds to his nobles. In this transaction he, as 
their suzerain, promised to them justice and protection, and they, as 
his vassals, agreed not only to serve him in person, but to furnish upon 
his call a certain number of armed men ready and equipped for active 
military service. In like manner the vassals of the Crown granted 



glad to swear fealty to some great lord in order to secure his protection. 
Powerful nobles became vassals of kings, and kings themselves were 
vassals of other kings, — as was William the Conqueror, w4io, as Duke 
of Normandy, owed homage to the dissolute Philip I. of France. Not 
laymen alone, but bishops and monastic bodies, held their lands by 
military service, and were bound to furnish their quota of soldiers. 



MEDIEVAL CIVILIZATION. 103 

These different bands of armed men, collected together, formed the 
feudal army of the kingdom. Thus, in place of the solid, highly or- 
ganized Roman legion, there was a motley array furnished and com- 
manded by the great nobles of the realm, each of whom was followed 
by an enormous retinue of knights, esquires, and lesser nobles, leading 
the military contingent of their respective manors or estates. 

In France, by the 11th century, feudalism was full grown, and its 
evils were at their height. The country was covered by a complete 
network of fiefs, and even the most simple privileges, such as the right 
to cross a certain ford, or to fish in some small creek, were held by 
feudal tenure. In this way one lord was frequently both suzerain and 
vassal to his neighbor lord. As the royal power had become almost 
paralyzed, the French dukes and counts ruled their compact domains 
like independent kings. Sheltered in their castles and surrounded by 
their followers, they made war, formed alliances, and levied taxes at 
their pleasm'e. 

In England the Norman Conqueror, knowing well the French mis- 
rule, prevented a like result by making all landholders, great and 
small, owe direct fealty to himself, and by widely scattering the es- 
tat<»s of each tenant-in-chief.i 

Feudal Ceremonies. — Homage, Fealty, investiture. — When a vassal 
received a fief, he did homage therefor on bended knee, ungirt and 
bareheaded, placing his joined hands in those of his lord, and promis- 
ing to become '■ his man " from that day forth. The vassal was bound, 
among his other obligations, always to defend his lord's good name, 
to give him his horse if dismounted in battle, to be his hostage if he 
were taken prisoner, and to pay him specified sums of money (aids) on 
particular occasions, — such as that of the marriage of the lord's eldest 
daughter, or the knighting of the lord's eldest son. 

Fealty did not include the obligation to become the lord's man, nor 
to pledge everything for his ransom ; it was sworn by tenants for life, 
while Homage was restricted to those who could bequeath their estates. 
Investiture was the placing in possession of an estate, either actually 
or symbolically, as by delivering a stone, tm'f, or branch. 

The Castle has been called the symbol of feudalism. A strong 
stone fortress, crowning some high, jagged cliff or beetling promontory, 
inclosed by massive, parapeted walls, girdled by moats and bristling 
with towers, it may well be likened to a haughty feudal lord. Bold 
and stout-hearted must have been the foe that ventured its assault. 



1 Compare with the policy of Cleisthenes (Anc. Peo., p. 124).— The distinction 
between French and English feudal obligations may be illustrated thus : Let A be 
the sovereign, B the tenant-in -chief, and C the under-tenant. In France, if B warred 
with A, C was bound to aid, not A, but B ; while in England, C was required to aid 
A against B. 



104 



MEDIEVAL PEOPLES. 



There were sometimes, as at Montlhery in France, five inclosures 
to pass before the donjon keep was reached. Over this great tower 
floated the banner of its lord, and within its stone walls, often ten feet 
thick, were stored his choicest treasures. Its entrance door, set high 
up in the wall, was guarded by a solid, narrow, outer staircase, a 
drawbridge, and a portcullis ; its near approach was protected by 
mounted battlements and a machicolated parapet. Intrenched in one 
of these grim strongholds a baron could, and often did, defy the king 




A MEDLffiVAL CASTLE. 



himself. The Crusades broke the strength of early feudalism, and 
created 

Chivalry, which, as an institution, attained its height in the 14th 
century. In it were combined the old Germanic pride in prowess and 
respect for woman ; the recent religious fervor ; a growing love for 
splendor, poetry, and music ; an exclusive, aristocratic spirit ; and a 
hitherto disregarded sentiment of duty toward the weak and the op- 
pressed. Its chief exponent was 

The Knight, who, at his best, was the embodiment of valor, honor, 
gallantry, and munificence. Brave, truthful, and generous in charac- 
ter 5 high-bred and courteous in manner ; strong, athletic, and grace- 



MEDIEVAL CIVILIZATION. 



105 



ful in person ; now glittering in polished steel and fiercely battering 
the walls of Jerusalem ; now clad in silken jupon and tilting with rib- 
boned lance at the gorgeous tournament; always associated with the 
sound of martial music, the jingle of armor, and the clashing of 
swords, or with the rustle of quaintly robed ladies in castle halls, — 
the ideal chevalier rides through the middle ages, the central hero of all 
its romance. We see him first, a lad of seven years, joining a group 
of high-born pages and damsels who cluster about a fair lady in a 
stately castle. Here he studies music, chess, and knightly courtesies, 
and commits to memory his Latin Code of Manners. He carries his 
lady's messages, sends and re- 
calls her falcon in the chase, 
and imitates the gallantry he 
sees about him. When a pil- 
grim-harper with fresh tidings 
from the Holy Land knocks at 
the castle gate, and sits down 
by the blazing fire in the great 
pillared hall, hung with ar- 
mor, banners, and emblazoned 
standards, or is summoned to 
9. cushion on the floor of my 
lady's chamber, the little image's 
heart swells with emulous de- 
sire as he hears of the marvel- 
ous exploits of the Knights of 
the Holy Grail, or listens to the 
stirring Song of Roland. At 
fourteen he is made squire, and 
assigned to some office about 
the castle, — the most menial 
duty being an honor in the 

knightly apprenticeship. His physical, moral, and military education 
becomes more rigid. Seated on his horse, he learns to manage arms, 
scale walls, and leap ditches. He leads the war-steed of his lord to 
battle or the tournament, and " rivets with a sigh the armor he is for- 
bidden to wear." At twenty-one his probation is ended. Fasting, 
ablution, confession, communion, and a night in prayer at the altar, 
precede the final ceremony. He takes the vow to defend the faith, to 
protect the weak, to honor womankind ; his belt is slung around him ; 
his golden spurs are buckled on ; he kneels; receives the accolade,! 

1 This was a blow on tlio neck of the candidate witli the flat of a sword, given 
by the conferring prince, who at the same time pronounced the words : " I dub thee 
knight, in the name of tlie Father, Son, and Holy Ghost." 




COSTUME (14TH AND 15TH CENTURIES). 



106 MEDIEVAL PEOPLES. 

and rises a chevalier. His horse is led to the church door, and, amid 
the shouts of the crowd and the peal of trumpets, he rides away into 
the wide world to seek the glory he hopes to win. — Not many knights, 
it is true, were like Godfrey and Bayard. The very virtues of chivalry 
often degenerated into vices ; but any approach to courtesy in this 
violent age was a great advance upon its general lawlessness.! 

The Tournament was to the mediaeval knight what public games 
had been to the Greek, and the gladiatorial contest to the Roman. 
Every device was used to produce a gorgeous spectacle. The painted 
and gilded lists were hung with tapestries, and were overlooked by 
towers and galleries, decorated with hangings, pennants, shields, and 
banners. Here, dressed in their richest robes, were gathered kings, 
queens, princes, knights, and ladies. Kings-at-arms, heralds, and pur- 
suivants-at-arms — the reporters of the occasion — stood within or just 
without the arena ; musicians were posted in separate stands ; and 
valets and sergeants were stationed everywhere, to keep order, to pick 
up and replace broken weapons, and to raise unhorsed knights. At the 
sound of the clarions the competing chevaliers, arrayed in full armor 
and seated on magnificently caparisoned horses, with great plumes 
nodding above their helmets and ladies' ribbons floating from their 
lances, rode slowly and solemnly into the lists, followed by their several 
esquires, all gayly dressed and mounted. Sometimes the combatants 
were preceded by their chosen ladies, who led them in by gold or silver 
chains. When all was ready, the heralds cried, " Laisses-les aller" (let 
them go), the trumpets pealed, and from the opposite ends of the arena 
the knights dashed at full speed to meet with a clash in the center. 
Shouts of cheer from the heralds, loud flourishes from the musicians, 
and bursts of applause from thousands of lookers-on, rewarded every 
brilliant feat of arms or horsemanship. And when the conquering 
knight bent to receive the prize from the hand of some fair lady, the 
whole air trembled with the cries of "honor to the brave," and "glory 
to the victor." But tournaments were not all joyous play. Almost 
always some were carried dead or dying from the lists, and in a single 
German tourney sixty knights were killed. 

Arms, Armor, and Military "Engines.— Mail armor was composed 
of metal rings sewed upon cloth or linked together in the shape of 
garments. Afterward metal plates and caps were intermixed with it, 

1 The knight who had heen accused and convicted of cowardice and falsehood 
incurred a fearful degradation. Placed astride a beam, on a public scaffold, under 
the eyes of assembled knights and ladies, he was stripped of his armor, which was 
broken to pieces before his eyes and thrown at his feet. His spurs were cast into the 
filth, his shield was fastened to the croup of a cart-horse and dragged in the dust, 
and his charger's tail was cut off. He was then carried on a litter to the church, the 
burial service was read over him, and he was published to the world as a dead coward 
and traitor. 



MEDIEVAL CIVILIZATION. 107 

and in the 15th century a complete suit of plate armor was worn. 
This consisted of several pieces of highly tempered and polished steel, 
so fitted, jointed, and overlapped as to protect the whole body. It was 
fastened over the knight with hammer and pincers, so he could neither 
get in nor out of it alone, and it was so cumbrous and unwieldy that, 
once down, he could not rise again. Thus he was "a castle of steel 
on his war-horse, a helpless log when overthrown," Boiled leather was 
sometimes used in place of metal. Common soldiers wore leather or 
quilted jackets, and an iron skull-cap. 

The longbow was to the middle ages what the rifle is to our day. 
The English excelled in its use, and their enemies sometimes left their 
walls unmanned, because, as was said, " no one could peep but he w^ould 
have an arrow in his eye before he could shut it." The Genoese were 
famous crossbow-men. The bolts of brass and iron sent from their 
huge crossbows would pass through the head-piece of a man-at-arms 
and pierce his brain. Many military arts and defenses used from the 
earliest times were still in vogue, and so remained until gunpowder 
was invented. Indeed, a mediaeval picture of a siege does not striking- 
ly differ from Ninevite sculptures or Theban paintings, either in the na- 
ture of its war-engines or in the perspective art of the drawing itself. 

Education and Literature. — During the llth and 12th centuries, 
schools and seminaries of learning were multiplied, and began to ex- 
pand into universities ; that of Paris, the "City of Letters," taking the 
lead. Now, also, arose the Scholastic Philosophy, which applied the 
logic of Aristotle to intricate problems in theology. The Schoolmen 
began with Peter Lombard (d. 1160), a professor in the University of 
Paris, where he had studied under the brilliant Abelard, — an eloquent 
lecturer, now remembered chiefly as the lover of Heloise. Lombard 
has been styled the " Euclid of Scholasticism." Another noted school- 
man was Albertus Magnus, a German of immense learning, whose 
scientific researches brought upon him the reputation of a sorcerer. 
The doctrines of Thomas Aquinas, a Dominican monk, and of Duns 
Scotus, a Franciscan, divided the schools, and the reasonings and 
counter-reasonings of Thomists and Scotists filled countless pages with 
logical subtleties. The vast tomes of scholastic theology left by the 
13th century schoolmen " amaze and appall the mind with the enormous 
accumulation of intellectual industry, ingenuity, and toil, of which the 
sole result to posterity is this barren amazement." Roger Bacon was 
at this time startling the age by his wonderful discoveries in science. 
Accused, like Albert the Great, of dealing with magic, he paid the pen- 
alty of his advanced views by ten years in prison. 

While in monastery and university the schoolmen racked their brains 
with subtle and profound distinctions, the gay French Troubadours, 
equipped with their ribboned guitars, were flitting from castle to castle, 



108 



MEDIEVAL PEOPLES. 



where the gates were always open to them and their flattering rhymes. 

The Trouveres supplied the age with allegories, comic tales, and long 

romances, while the German Minnesdnger (love-singers) numbered 

kings and princes among their poets. 

In Scandinavia, the mythological poems or sagas of 
the 8th-10th centuries were collected into what is called 
the older Edda (11th or 12th century) ; and afterward 
appeared the younger Edda, — whose legends linked the 
Norse race with the Trojan heroes (Anc, Peo., p. 115). 
The German NibelungenUed (12th century) was a collec- 
tion of the same ancestral legends woven into a grand 
epic by an unknown poet. 

To the 13th and 14th centuries respectively, belong 
the great poets Dante and Chaucer. About this time a 
strong desire for learning was felt among the common 
people, it being for them the only road to distinction. 
The children of burghers and artisans, whose educa- 
tion began in the little public school attached to the 
parish church, rose to be lawyers, priests, and states- 
men. The nobility generally cared little for scholarship. 
A gentleman could always employ a secretary, and the 
glory won in a crusade or a successful tilt in a tourna- 
ment was worth more to a mediseval knight than the 
book-lore of ages. Every monastery had a "writing- 
room," where the younger monks were employed in tran- 
scribing manuscripts. After awhile copying became a 
trade, the average price being about four cents a leaf 
for prose, and two for verse, — the page containing thirty 
lines. Adding price of paper, a book of prose cost not 
far from fifty cents a leaf. 

Arts and Architecture. — As learning was confined 
mostly to the Church, art naturally found its chief ex- 
pression in cathedral building. Toward the close of the 
12th century, the round-arched, Eomanesque style gave 
place to the pointed-arched, spired, and buttressed edi- 
fice. The use of painted glass for windows crowned 
the glory of the Gothic cathedral. 2 Religious ideas 

1 The style, or stylus, was the chief instrument of writing during the mitUlle ages. 
With the pointed end the letters were cut on the waxen tablet, while the rounded 
head was used in making erasures. If the writing was to be preserved, it was after- 
ward copied by a scribe on parchment or vellum witli a rude reed pen, which was 
dipped in a colored liquid. The style was sometimes made of bone or ivory, some- 
times of glass or iron, while those used by persons of rank were made of gold or 
silver, and were often ornamented with curious figures. 

2 The Italians relied more on brilliant frescoes and Mosaics for interior effect; 



STYLUS.l 

(13th and 14th 

Centuries. ) 



MEDIEVAL CIVILIZATION. 



109 



were expressed in designs and carvings. Thus the great size and lofti- 
ness of the interior symbolized the Divine Majesty; the high and 
pointed towers represented faith and hope ; and, as the rose was 
made to signify human life, everywhere on windows, doors, arches, and 
columns, the cross sprang out of a rose. So, too, the altar was placed 
at the East, whence the Saviour came, and was raised three steps to 
indicate the Trinity. These mighty structures were the work often 
of centuries. The Cologne Cathedral was begun in 1248 ; its chancel 
was finished in 1320 ; but the lofty spire was not completed till our 

own day. 

The Guilds and Corpora- 
tions of the middle ages were 
a great power, rivaling the in- 
fluence of the nobles, and fre- 
quently controlling the munici- 
pal government. 




COLOGNE CATHEDRAL. 



Manners and Customs. — Extravagance in dress, equipage, and 
table marked all high life. Only the finest cloths, linens, silks, and 
velvets, adorned with gold, pearls, and embroidery, satisfied the tastes 
of the nobility. 1 In the midst of the Hundred- Years' War England 



the French and English cathedrals excelled In painted glass. " Nothing can compare 
with the party-colored glories of the windows of a perfect Gothic cathedral, where the 
whole history of the Bihle is written in the hues of the rainbow."— Ferfirwssow. 

1 Men took the lead in fashion. Once peaked shoes were worn, tiie points two feet 
long; then the toes became six inches broad. A fop of the 14th century "wore long- 
pointed shoes, fastened to his knees by gold and silver chains; hose of one color 
on one leg and ot another on the other ; knee breeches ; a coat one half white, the 



110 



MEDIEVAL PEOPLES. 



and France carried on a rivalry of splendor and expense. Delicacies 
from Constantinople, Palestine, Phoenicia, Alexandria, and Babylon 
were served at royal entertainments. The tables blazed with gold and 

silver plate, yet had not the 

refinement of a fork, and 

fingers were thrust into the 

rich dishes or tore the greasy 

meats into bits. A knight 

and his lady often ate from 

the same plate, and soaked 

their crusts of bread in the 

same cup of soup. Men and 

women sat at table with their 

hats on, although it was the 

height of bad manners to 

keep on gloves during a visit, 

and a personal insult to take 

the hand of a friend in the 

street without first unglov- 

ing. Great households were 

kept up, and kings enter- 
tained as many as 10,000 per- 
sons daily at the royal board. 

The lower orders aped the 
higher, and Sumptuary Laws were made to protect the pri\dleges of the 
nobility, not only in dress but also in food. 





MALE COSTUME. 
(Uth and 12th Centuries. ) 



FEMALE COSTUME. 
(11th and 12th Centuries. ) 




A MOVABLE IKON CAGE (15TH CEXTUHY). 



Other blue or black ; a long beard ; a silk hood buttoned under his chin, embroidered 
with quaint figures of animals, and ornamented with gold, silver, and precious stones." 



READING REFERENCES. Ill 

Funisliments were barbarous and severe. The gallows and the 
rack were ever at work. Chopping off of hands, putting out of eyes, 
and cutting off of ears, were common affairs. The most ingenious tor- 
tures were devised, and hanging was the mildest death allowed to 
criminals. 

Summary (see p. 9).— The 5th and 6th centuries were charac- 
terized by the settlements of the Teutons in Roman territory. The 
7th century was marked by the rise of Mohammed and the spread 
of the Saracen Empire. The 8th century saw the growth of the 
Frankish power, culminating in the empire of Charlemagne. The 
9th century witnessed the welding of the Saxon sovereignties into 
England ; the breaking-up of Charlemagne's empire into France, Ger- 
many, and Italy; and the founding of Russia by Normans. The 
10th century brought Rollo into Normandy, and Capet to the French 
throne. The 11th century was made memorable by the Norman Con- 
quest of England ; the overthrow of the Greek-Saracen rule in south- 
ern Italy; and the war of the investiture in Germany. The 12th cen- 
tury saw the Crusades at their height, and the Italian republics in their 
glory. The 13th century built up France, and granted Magna Charta 
to England. The 14th century witnessed the Hundred- Years' War and 
free Switzerland. The 15th century is memorable for the deliverance 
of France ; the Wars of the Roses ; the Conquest of Granada, with the 
rise of Spain ; the fall of Constantinople ; and the discovery of America. 

READING REFERENCES. 

General History.— Mallam's Middle Ages.—Putz and Arnold's Mediceval His- 
tory.— Schmitz's Middle Ages.— Freeman's General Sketch of European History.— 
Malay's History of the Byzantine Empire.— Milman's History of Latin Christianity.— 
Draper's Intellectual Development of Europe.— Creasy' s Fifteen Decisive Battles.— 
Ouizot's History of Civilization.— 3Ienzies's History of Middle Ages.— The Beginning 
of the Middle Ages {Epochs of History Series).— Duruy's Histoire du Moyen Age.— 
Freeman's Historical Geography of Europe {invaluable in tracing obscure geograph- 
ical changes).— Robertson's Charles V. {Introduction on Middle Ages).— Sullivan's His- 
torical Causes and Effects.— Dunham's Middle Ages.— Adams's Manual of Historical 
Literature {an excellent bibliographical guide).— Lacroix's Manners and Customs.— 
Science and Literature, and Military and Religious Life, of the Middle Ages.— 
Maclear's Apostles of Mediceval Europe^s^Vright's Homes of the Middle Ages, and 
Womankind in Western Europe.— Kingsley's Roman and Teuton.— Baring-Gould's 
Curious MytJis of the Middle Ages.— Cox and Jones's Romances of the Middle Ages.— 
OliphanVs Francis of Assisi.— George Eliot's Romola. 

The Crusades and chivalry.— Cox's Crusades.- Michaud's History of the Cru- 
sades — Mackay's Fopidar Dehisions, art. The Crusades.— Addison's History of the 
Knights Templars.— Tasso's Jerusalem Delivered {poetry).— Chronicles of the Crusades 
{Bohn's Library).— Bell's Studies of Feudalism.— Chronicles of Froissart {unrivaled 
pictures of chivalry).— Scott's Ivanhoe, Talisman, and Anne of Geierstein.—Bulfinch's 
Age of Chivalry.— Adams's Mediceval Civilization. 

England.— ifjtmc's, Knight's, Green's, Lingard's, Creasy's, Keightley's, Collier's, 
Froude'8, and Gardiner's Histories of England.— Pearson' s History of England, Early 



112 



MEDIEVAL PEOPLES. 



and Middle Ages.— Freeman's Norman Conquest— Thompson's History of England 
(Freeman's Historical Course).— Thierry's History of the Norman Conquest.— Pal- 
grave's Normandy and England. - Cobb's History of the Normati Kings of England.— 
Green's Making of England.— Freeman's Old English History.— TJie Norman Kings 
and Feudal System; the Early Plantagenets ; Edward III.; Houses of Lancaster 
and York {Epochs of History Series).— Smith's History of English Institutions (His- 
torical Hand-book Series) .— Burton's History of Scotland (the standard authority). 
—Strickland's Lives of the Queens of England.— Green's Lives of the Princesses of 
England.— St. John's Four Conquests of England.— Shakspere's King John (Arthur) ; 
also Henry IV., Henry V., Henry VI., and Richard III.—Bulwer's Last of the 
Barons.— Kingsley's Hereward, the Last of the Saxons.— The '' Babee's Book." 

FHA^CE.—Godwin's (Vol. I.), White's, Smith's, Sismondi's, Miclielet's, Bonne- 
chose' s, Markham's, Crowe's, Kitchin's, Yonge's, and Edwards's Histories of Fromce. 
—Barnes's Brief History of France.— Thierry's History of the Gauls.— Guizot's Pop- 
ular History of France.— Martin's Histoire de France.— Luruy's Histoire de France.— 
Byron's Childe Harold (Moral). —James's Philip Aiigustus, Mary of Burgundy, and 
Jacquerie (fiction).— Southey's Joan of Arc (poetry).— Harriet Parr's Joan of Arc- 
Scott's Quentin Durward (fiction).— Jamison's Bertrand dxi Guesclin.— Kirk's Life 
of Charles the Bold.— Memoirs of Philippe de Comines.—Bulwer Lytton's translation 
of the Poem of Rou (Rollo).—Bulfinch's Legends of Charlemagne.— James' s Life of 
Charlemagne.— Scott's Marmion, Canto 6, Stanza 33 (Roland). 

GKRUAiiY.— Taylor's, Lewis's, Menzel's, and Kohlrausch's Histories of Germany.— 
Bryce's Holy Roman EmiHre.-Sime' s History of Germany (Freeman's Course).— 
Coxe's House of Austria.— Raumer's History of the Hohenstauf en.— Kington's Life of 
Frederick Il.—Peake's History of the German Einperors.— Abbott's Empire of Aus- 
tria.— Schiller's Drama of William Tell.— Scott's Ballad of the Battle of Sempach. 

SPAIN, ITALY, TURKEY, 'E.'vc.— Hunt's Italy (Freeman's Course).— Irving' s Ma- 
homet and his Successors, and Conquest of Granada.— Sismondi's History of Italian 
Republics.— Camj)belVs Life of Petrarch.— Longfclloiv's Dante.— Roscoe's Life of 
Lorenzo de' Medici.— Prescott's History of Ferdinand and Isabella.— Villari's Life of 
Savonarola.— Grimm's Life of Michael Angelo.—Ockley's History of the Saracens.— 
Symonds's Renaissance in Italy.— Taine's Art in Italy —Creasy's History of the Otto- 
man Turks.— Freeman's History and Conquests of the Saracens.— Lytton's Siege of 
Granada (fiction). 



CHRONOLOGY. 



FIFTH CENTURY (Concluded). 

(See Auc. Peo., p. 312.) 

A. D. 

Attila defeated in battle of Chalons . . 451 

Clovis wins battle of Soissons 486 

Theodoric with the Ostrogoths con- 
quers Italy 489-493 

Clovis becomes a Christian 496 

SIXTH CENTURY. 

Paris, Clovis's capital 510 

Arthur in Britain (conjectured) 515 

Time of Justinian 527-565 

Belisariusin Africa, 533; in Italy.. 536-539 
Silk Manufacture brought to Europe 551 
End of Ostrogoth Kingdom in Italy. 553 
Lombards conquer Italy 568 



A. D. 
Birth of Mohammed 570 

St. Augustine introduces Christian- 
ity into Britain 596 

SEVENTH CENTURY. 

The Hegira 622 

Mohammed's Death 632 

Omar captures Jerusalem 637 

Sixth General Council, at Constan- 
tinople 680 

EIGHTH CENTURY. 

Saracens invade Spain 711 

Martel overthrows Saracens at 
Tours 732 



CHRONOLOGY. 



113 



A. D. 

Pepin the Short becomes king.— 

Cailovingian Dynastj' founded 752 

Gift of Exarchate to Pope 754 

Emirate of Cordova founded 755 

Charlemagne becomes sole King of 

the Franks 771 

Battle of Roncesvalles 778 

Haroun al Raschid, calipli 786 

Seventh General Council, at Nice... 787 

Danes first land in Britain, about. . . 789 

Charlemagne crowned at Rome 800 

NINTH CENTURY. 

Death of Charlemagne 814 

Egbert, first Kingof England 827 

Battle of Fontenay 841 

Treaty of Verdun 843 

Russia founded by Ruric 862 

Alfred, King of England 871-901 

TENTH CENTURY. 

Alfred's Death 901 

RoUo the Norseman founds Nor- 
mandy 911 

Otto the Great, Emperor of Ger- 
many 936-973 

Hugli Capet crowned ; founds Cape- 
tian Dynasty 987 

ELEVENTH CENTURY. 

Canute (Knut), King of England 1017-35 

Normans conquer Soutli Italy 1040 

Edwaid the Confessor restores Sax- 
on Line in England 1042 

Guelf and Ghibelline Feud begins .. 1061 

Normans conquer England 1066 

Turks capture Jerusalem 1076 

First Crusade 1096 

TWELFTH CENTURY. 

Guiscard of Normandy, King of 

Naples 1102 

Knights Templars founded 1118 

Second Crusade 1147 

Plantagenet Line founded 1154 

Henry II. invades Ireland 1171 

Third Crusade 1189 

THIRTEENTH CENTURY. 

Fourth Cru.sade 1202 

War against Albigenses 1208 



A. D. 

Battle of Runnymede.— John grants 

Magna Charta 1215 

Fifth Crusade 1218 

Sixth Crusade.. 122S 

Genghis Khan.— Gregory IX. estab- 
lishes Inquisition 1233 

Seventh Crusade 1249 

Mongols sack Bagdad 1258 

Eighth Crusade 1270 

Hapsburg Line founded 1273 

Teutonic Order conquers Prussia... 1281 

Edward I. conquers Wales 1283 

Turks capture Acre.— End of Cru- 
sades 1291 

Edward conquers Scotland 1295 

FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 

Pope removes to Avignon 1306 

Wallace executed 1305 

Battle of Bannockburn 1314 

Battle of Morgarten 1315 

Hundred-Years' War 1328-1453 

Battle of Cr^cy 1346 

Calais surrendered 1347 

Rienzi, Tribune of Rome 1347 

Battle of Poitiers 1356 

Pope returns to Rome 1377 

Wat Tyler's Insurrection 1381 

Battle of Senipach 1386 

FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 

John Huss burned 1415 

Battle of Agincourt 1415 

Jeanne D' Arc at Orleans 1428 

Charles VII. crowned at Rheims 1429 

Jeanne d'Arc burned 1431 

Capture of Constantinople 1453 

Wars of the Roses 1455-85 

Gutenberg prints the first book 1456 

Battles of Granson, Morat, and Nan- 

cy (Death of Charles the Bold).. 1476-77 

Lorenzo de' Medici at Florence 1478 

Union of Castile and Aragon under 

Ferdinand and Isabella 1479 

Battle of Bosworth.— Tudor Line 

founded 1485 

Fall of Granada 1492 

Columbus discovers America 1492 

Charles VIII. invades Italy 1494 

Vasco da Gama doubles Cape of 

Good Hope 1497 

Savonarola burned 1498 



114 



MEDIEVAL PEOPLES. 



CONTEMPORARY SOVEREIGNS. 



ENGLAND. 

Wmiaml 1066 

WiUiam II 1087 



Henry I IIOO 

Stephen 1135 

Henry II , 1154 

Richard 1 1189 

John 1199 



Henry III. 



Edward II 1307 



Edward III. 



Bichard II... .... 1377 

Henry IV 1399 



Henry V 1413 

Henry VI 1422 

Edward IV 1461 

Edward V 1483 

Richard III 1483 

Henry VII 1485 



FRANCE, 



Philip 1 


1060 




Louis VI 


1108 


Louis VII 

Philip II 


1137 

1180 


Louis VIII 

Louis IX 

Philip III 


1223 

1226 

1''70 


Philip IV 


1285 


Louis X 

Philip V 

Charles IV 

Philip VI 

Jolin 


1314 

1316 

1322 

1328 

1350 


Charles V 

Charles VI 


1364 

1380 


Charles VII 

Louis XI' 

Charles VIII 

Louis XII 


1422 

1461 

1483 

1498 



GERMANY. 
Henry IV 1056 



Henry V 1106 

Lothaire II 1125 

Conrad III 1138 

Frederick Barbarossa 1152 

Henry VI 1190 

Philip 1197 



Otto IV 1209 

Frederick II 1215 

Conrad IV 1250 

Rudolf 1273 

Adolphus 1292 

Albert 1 1298 



Henry VII 1308 

Lewis IV 1314 

Frederick the Fair 1314 

Charles IV 1347 

Wenceslaus 1378 



Rupert 1400 

Sij^ismund 1410 

Albert II 1438 

Frederick III 1440 

Maximilian 1 1493 




GOLD FLOUIN, LOUIS IX. 



MODERN PEOPLES. 



" The human mind wrote History and this must read it. The Sphinx must 
solve her own riddle. Every fact narrated must correspond to somethinji- in 
me to be intelligible. As we read, we must become Greek, Roman, Turk, 
priest, king, martj^r, and executioner ; we must fasten these images to some 
reality in our secret experience, or we shall learn nothing rightly. Each new 
fact, and each political moment, has a meaning for us. We may see our own 
vices without heat in the distant persons of Solomon, Alcibiades, and Catiline. 
We are to read History actively, not passively; to esteem our own life the 
text, and books the commentary. Thus comiielled, the Muse of History will 
utter oracles as never to those who do not respect themselves. I have no 
expectation that any man will read History aright who thinks that what was 
done in a remote age, by men whose names have resounded far, has any 
deeper sense than what he is doing to-day," 

Umerso)i. 



BLACKBOARD ANALYSIS. 



Introduction, 



The 16th 
Century, 



1. THE French in Italy. 



2. THE AGE OF Charles V. 



THE RISE OF THE 
PUBLIC. 



DUTCH RE- 



THE French 
Wars. 



Civil-Religious 



The 17th 
Century. 



5. England under the tudors. 



1. The THIRTY- Years' war. 



^ 2. THE ABSOLUTE MONARCHY 
FRANCE. 



ENGLAND UNDER THE STUARTS. 
PERIOD OF THE CIVIL WAR. 



The 18th 
Century, 



The 19th 
Century. 



I! 



r 1. Charles VIII. 
I 2. Louis XII. 
[ 3. Frauds I. 

r 1. The Rivalry of Charles and 

< Francis. 

I 2. Tlie Reforniatiou. 

/ 1. The Netherlands. 
j 2. The Retonnation. 
1 3. Tlie Duke of Alva, 
t 4. The Fortj'-Years' War. 

[ 1. The Reformation in France. 
I 2. Francis II. 

< 3. Charles IX. 
! 4. Henry III. 
I 5. Henry IV. 

f 1. Henry VII. 
2. Henry VIII. 
~ Edward VI. 

Mary. 

Elizabeth. 

1. Causes. 

2. Opening of the War. 

3. Imperial Triumph. 

f a. Tilly. 
I 6. Leipsic. 

4. Gustavus ) c. Wallenstein. 
Adolphus. 1 d. Liltzen. 

I e. Death of 
{ Gustavus. 

5. Remainder of War. 

6. Peace of Westphalia. 

1. Age of Richelieu. 

2. Age of Louis XIV. 

1. James I. 

2. Charles I. 

3. The Civil War. 

4. The Commonwealth. 

5. The Restoration. Charles II. 

6. James II. 

7. Revolution of 1688. William 

and Mary. 

8. Anne. 



1. PETER THE GKEAT AND CHARLES XII. 

2. RISE OF PRUSSIA: AGE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT. 



ENGLAND UNDER THE HOUSE OF 
HANOVER. 



4. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 



1. France. 



2. ENGLAND. 

3. GERMANY. 

4. ITALY. 

5. TURKEY. 

6. Greece. 

7. the netherlands. 

8. RUSSIA. 

9. jafan. 



2. 
3. 
4. 


George I. 
George II. 
George III. 
See 19th Century. 


I. 

2. 

3. 


Louis XV. 
Louis XVI. 

a. Abolition of 
French Monarchy. 
Rev- j b. E'gn of Terror 
olu- ] c. Directory. 
tion. 1 d. Constda'te. 
{ e. Empire.^ 



—(See Analysis of 18th Cent.) ■ 

1. The Restoration. 

2. The Second Republic. 

3. The Second Empire. 

4. The Third Republic. 



[The subdivisions of tliese 
general topics may be filled in 
from the titles of the para- 
graphs in tlie text, as the stu- 
dent proceeds.] 



MODERN PEOPLES. 




GLOBE ILLUSTRATING THE GEOGRAPHICAL KNOWLEDGE OF THE 15TH CENTUKY. 

INTHODUCTION. 

The End of the 15th and the Beginning of the 
16th Century formed the springtime of a new era. It was 
an epoch of important events : in 1491, Charles VIII. mar- 
ried Anne of Brittany, which united to the French crown the 
last of the great feudal provinces ; in 1492, Granada fell into 
the hands of Ferdinand and Isabella, a conquest which estab- 
lished the Spanish monarchy ; in the same year, Columbus 



118 MODERN PEOPLES. [15th cent. 

discovered America, wMcli gave a new world to the old ; in 
1494, the Italian wars commenced, and with them the bat- 
tles and rivalries of the chief European nations; in 1508, 
Raphael and Michael Angelo were painting in the Vatican at 
Rome, which marked a revolution in art ; in 1517, Luther 
posted his 95 theses on the Wittenberg cathedral door, and 
so inaugurated the Reformation ; in 1521, Magellan circum- 
navigated the globe, thus giving correct geographical ideas ; 
finally, about 1530, Copernicus finished his theory of the solar 
system, which was the beginning of a new epoch in science. 

The Causes of this w^onderful change were numerous. 
The Crusades kindled a spirit of trade, adventure, and con- 
quest. Travel at the East enlarged the general knowledge 
of the earth. The use of the mariner's compass emboldened 
sailors to undertake long voyages. Large cities had risen to 
be centers of freedom, commerce, manufactures, and wealth. 
The revival of learning in Italy stirred men's thoughts in 
every land. The fall of Constantinople scattered the treas- 
ures of Greek literature over the West ; learned men, driven 
from the East, settled in Europe ; the philosophy and arts of 
Athens and Rome were studied with zest ; each nation felt, 
in turn, the impulse of the Renaissance ; and a succession 
of painters, sculptors, poets, and historians arose sut3h as 
Christendom had never seen. There were now nearly forty 
universities in Europe, and students traveling to and fro 
among them distributed the new ideas, which gradually 
found theii- way into the minds of the masses. Above all 
else, two inventions revolutionized Europe. 

Gunpoivder^ pierced the heaviest armor, and shattered the 



1 Gunpowder seems to have been known to tlie Chinese at an early day, though 
Roger Bacon, an English monk of tlie 13th century, is called its inventor. Its appli- 
cation to war is ascribed to a German named Schwartz (1330), but long before that 
the Moors used artillery in the defense of Cordova. The English at Cr6cy had three 
small cannon. The French under Louis XI. invented trunnions, a light carriage, and 



15th cent.] 



INTRODUCTION, 



119 



strongest wall. The foot-soldier with his musket could put 
to flight the knight-errant with his lance. Standing armies 
of infantry and artiUery took the place of the feudal levy. 
This changed the whole art of war. The king was now 
stronger than the noble. 




IIIK INVENTION OF TRINTING 



Printing by means of movable types was invented by 
Gu^tenberg of Mentz, w^ho issued in 1456 a Latin Bible. 
Books, which had hitherto been laboriously copied on parch- 
ment, were now rapidly multiplied, and the cost was greatly 
reduced. Cheaper books made new readers. Knowledge 
became more, widely diffused. 

The Political Condition of Europe was that of great 



cast-iron shot, thus equipping a weapon serviceable in the field. Charles VIII. owed 
his rapid conquest of Italy to his park of liglit artillery that was in striking contrast 
to the cumbersome Italian bombards dragged about with great difficulty by oxen and 
firing stone balls. 



120 MODERN PEOPLES. [15th cent. 

monarchies, each ready to turn its forces against the others. 
The so-called ''States-System" now arose. Its object was 
the preservation of the Balance of Power, i. e., the prevent- 
ing any one state from getting a superiority over the rest. 
Thence came alliances and counter-alliances among the dif- 
ferent nations, and various schemes of diplomacy that often 
bewilder the student of modern history. 

Maritime Discoveries. — Up to this time, the known 
world comprised only Europe, southwestern Asia, and a 
strip of northern Africa. The rich products of the East 
were still brought to the West by way of Alexandria and 
Venice. Cape Nun, on the coast of Africa, by its very name 
declared the belief that there was nothing attainable beyond. 
The sea at the equator was thought to be boiling hot, and 
the maps represented the Occident as bristling with monsters. 

TJie Portuguese sailors, under the auspices of Prince 
Henry and King John II., ventured each voyage further 
south, crossed the dreaded equator, and, sailing under the 
brighter stars of a new hemisphere, league by league explored 
the African coast, until finally Diaz (1487) doubled the con- 
tinent. The southern point he weU named the Cape of 
Storms ; but King John, seeing now a way to reach India 
by sea, rechristened it the Cape of Good Hope. Eleven years 
later Vasco da Gama realized this sanguine expectation. He 
rounded the Cape, sailed across the Indian Ocean, landed 
on the Malabar coast, and returned home with a cargo of 
Indian products. The old routes across the Mediterranean, 
through Egypt and the Levant, were now nearly abandoned. 
The Portuguese soon made a settlement on the Malabar 
coast. Their commercial establishments, shipping by sea 
directly to Europe, quickly gathered up the Eastern trade. 
Lisbon, instead of Venice, became the great depot of Indian 
products. 



GREAT VOYAGES OF DISCOVERY SINCE THE 15t1iCl 



Spain [ 



Poi'tugal I I 



Markham So 20' 
Grinnell ^ AvasLington Land 



Gr.Britaiu I I 



Wc Clintocl 



y- PARRY IS, „ I \ } S 



ITZBERdi 

Barents \ 

iodG ' 



^4C; 1 ; 



n. 



BRITISH 'i?\. 
ISLES/1 > "v, 









Ci^^i^. 



NEwtFOUNLLAlVD 



^' 



AZORES :V^ ^ . , ■■' 



'^ovk i ""^Oj^J-^c/ /■^ ^'''■a^aui }:.2i madeira 




Tlquator 



•^'^''^ 



,'., l^ .Sf^^ "- (-''/"^/-Zj/i.f-' _ CANARY 

^IS^•AlNlOLA : ■'■ CAPE VERD IS, °-'.: 

/OoJ \ ' ?^ B 5, Porto/;/ ST.HELENAI. . 




i,'^ ASCENSION I 



f-^l 



1,:^ / „V'-''^-^ Falkland is. 
I - ^UavisJo93 C.GEORGIA 



S.SHETLAND ^ 



^m 



I •-- ■•• I 



J L 



RY AND PRI^ CTPAL COLONIAL POSSESSTOIN^S. 




1498.] 



INTRODUCTION. 



121 




A SHIP OF THE 15TH CENTURY. 
(From a Drawing attributed to Columbus. ) 



Columhis, meanwliile, in- 
spired by the same hope of 
finding a sea-ronte to India, 
and belie\dng the earth to be 
round, sailed westward. He 
reached, not India, as he sup- 
posed, but a new world. On 
his third voyage, the very 
year that Da Gama sailed to 
Asia, Columbus first saw the 
coast of South America. 

Adventurers of many na- 
tions now flocked eagerly 
through the door Columbus 
had opened. The names 
of Vespucci, Balboa, Cartier, 
Ponce de Leon, and De Soto are familiar to every student of 
American history. The Cabots, sailing under the English 
flag, explored the coast of the New World from Labrador to 
Chesapeake Bay. Cabral, a Portuguese navigator, in 1500, 
took possession of Brazil in the name of his king. Finally 
Magellan passed through the strait still known by his name, 
and crossed the Pacific to the Philippine Islands ; there he 
was killed by the savage natives, but one of his ships, con- 
tinuing the voyage, circumnavigated the globe (1521). 

Mexico, when discovered by the Spaniards, had reached, 
under the Montezumas, — its Aztec rulers, — a considerable 
degree of civilization. Its laws were written in hiero- 
glyphics ; its judges were chosen for life 5 its army was fur- 
nished with music, hospitals, and surgeons; its calendar 
was more accurate than the Spanish ; its people were skilled 
in agriculture and the arts ; and its capital, Mexico, was sup- 
plied with aqueducts, and adorned with palaces and temples. 



122 MODERN PEOPLES. [1519-21. 

The Aztecs, however, were idolaters and cannibals ; and their 
civilization was ignorant of horse, ox, plow, printing, and 
gunpowder. 

Cortes, with a little army of 600 Spaniards, fearlessly 
invaded this powerful empire. His cannon and cavalry car- 
ried terror to the simple-minded natives. A war of three 
years, crowded with romance as with cruelty, completed the 
conquest. Mexico remained a province of Spain until 1821. 

Peru, under the Incas, was perhaps richer and more pow- 
erful than Mexico. Two great military roads extended the 
entire length of the empire, and along them the public cou- 
riers carried the news 200 miles per day. A vast system of 
water-works, more extensive than that of Egypt, irrigated 
the rainless regions, and agriculture had attained a high 
degree of perfection. The government was paternal, the 
land bemg owned by the Inca, and a portion assigned to 
each person to cultivate. Royal officers directed the indus- 
try of this great family in tillage, weaving, etc., and, though 
no one could rise above his station, it was the boast of the 
country that every one had work, and enjoyed the comforts 
of hfe. 

Pizarro, an unprincipled Spanish adventurer, overthrew 
this rich empire (1533), and imprisoned the Inca. The un- 
fortunate captive offered, for his ransom, to fill his cell with 
gold vessels as high as he could reach ; but, after he had 
collected over $15,000,000 worth, he was strangled by his 
perfidious jailers.. 

The Spanish Colonies rarely prospered. In Mexico, Cortes sought 
to rule wisely. He sent home for priests and learned men ; founded 
schools and colleges ; and introduced European plants and animals. 
But, on his return to Spain, he l>ecame, like Columbus, a victim of 
ingratitude, though he had given to the emperor Charles V. "more 
states than Charles had inherited cities." 

In general, the Spanish governors destroyed the native civilization, 



INTRODUCTION. 



123 



without introducing the European. The thirst for gold was the princi- 
pal motive that drew them to the New World. The natives were por- 
tioned among the conqiierors, and doomed to work in the mines. It is 
said that four fifths of the Peruvians perished in this cruel bondage. 
The kind-hearted Las Casas, the apostle of the Indians, spent his life 
in vainly seeking to alleviate their miseries, convert them to Christi- 
anity, and obtain for them governmental protection. To supply the 
fearful waste of the population, negroes were brought from Africa, and 
so slavery and the slave-trade were established. The Spaniards turned 
to agriculture only when gold-hunting ceased to pay ; and, not being a 
trading people, their colonial commerce fell chiefly into the hands of 
foreigners. For a time, however, the Spanish coffers were running 
over with American gold and silver. 

READING REFERENCES. 

Heeren's Manual.— Dyer's Hi titory of Modern Europe.— Beeren's Historical Trea- 
tises.— Yonge's Three Centuries of Modern History.— Arnold's Lectures on Modern 

History.— Thallieimer's Manual of Modern History.— JSlicheleVs Modern History. 

Duruy's Histoire des Temps Modernes.— Irving' s Life of Columbus.— Parkman's Pio- 
neers of Prance.— Help's Spanish Conquest of America.— Prescott's Ferdinand and 
Isabella {Columbus).— Wallace's Fair God {fiction).— Barnes's Brief Hist, of the U. S. 
—Barnes's Popular Hist, of the U. S.—Squicr's Ancient Peru, Harper's Mag., Vol. 7.— 
Abbott's Cortez, Harper's Mag., Vol. 12.— Abbott's Columbus, Harper's Mag., Vol. 38. 
—Higginson's Spanish Discoveries, Harper's Mag., Vol. 6o.—Fggieston's Beginning 
of a Nation, Century Magazine, Vol. 25.— Fitzgerald's Kings of Europe and their 
Families {excellent for genealogy). 




TOMB OF COLUMBUS AT HAVANA. 



124 THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 

THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 

I. THE FRENCH IN ITALY. 

The Invasion of Italy (1494) by the French may be 
considered the opening event of modern history. The many 
leagues formed during the progress of this invasion, lQus- 
trate the growth of the new States-System. 

Charles VIII. (1483-98), filled wdth dreams of rivaUng 
Alexander and Charlemagne, resolved to assert the claim of 
his house to the kingdom of Naples.^ Milan, Florence, and 
Rome opened their gates to his powerful army. He entered 
Naples amid the acclamations of the populace. This bril- 
liant success turned the head of the weak king, and he gave 
himself up to feasts and tournaments. Meanwhile the first 
extended league in modern history was formed by MUan, 
Venice, the Pope, Maximilian of Germany, and Ferdinand 
of Spain, to expel the invader. Charles retreated as hastily 
as he had come, and by the victory of Fornovo secured his 
escape into France. 

Lonis XII. (1498-1515), inheriting the schemes of 

Geographical Questions.— Ijocate Naples ; Milan ; Fornovo ; Venice ; Pavia ; 
Marignano; Genoa; Vienna; Wittenberg; Augsburg; Sraalcald; Nuremberg; 
Innsbruck; Passau ; Trent; Guinegate ; Calais; Toul ; Verdun; Rouen; Crespy ; 
Passy; Ivry; Nantes; Antwerp; Leyden ; Amsterdam; Haarlem; Ghent; Edin- 
burgh; Flodden ; Plymouth. Point out tlie seven provinces of Northern or United 
Netherlands ; the limits of the Spanish Empire in the 16th century. 

1 The Dukes of Anjou, a branch of the House of Frauce (p. 49), having been 
expelled from Italy, became established in the petty principality of Provence. After 
the death of Ren6, who, according to Shakspere, bore 

" The style of king of Naples, 
Of both the Sicilies and Jerusalem, 
Yet not so wealthy as an English yeoman," 
the province and the claim of the house fell to Louis XI. (Brief Hist. France, p. 106). 



1494.] 



THE FRENCH IN ITALY. 



125 



Charles VIII. with a claim to Milan, led the second expedi- 
tion over the Alps. Milan qnickly fell into his hands. An 
arrangement was made with Ferdinand to divide Naples 
between them ; bnt the conquerors quarreled over the spoil, 




and the French army, in spite of the heroism of the Cheva- 
lier Bayard, was beaten back from Naples by the Spanish 
infantry under the "Great Captain" Gonsalvo. 



126 



THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 



[1508. 



Three Leagues. — Louis next joined the League of Camhrai 
(Ferdinand, Maximilian, and Pope Julius II.) against Venice. 
Just as the fall of that repubhc seemed at hand, jealousies 
arose among the confederates. Pope Julius suddenly turned 
the scale by forming the Holy League (Ferdinand, Maxi- 
mihan, Venice, and the Swiss), which drove the French out of 
Italy. But Louis, now aUied with Venice, again descended 
upon Milan. The League of Malines (Ferdinand, Maximilian, 
Henry VIII., and Leo X.) stayed his steps anew. Henry 
VIII. invaded France, and at Gui negate the French cavalry 
fled so fast before him that the victory is known as the Bat- 
tle of the Spurs. Louis, beaten on aU sides, was glad to 
make peace. 
Francis I. (1515-47), also lured by the deceitful luster 

of Itahan conquest, be- 
gan his reign by pour- 
ing his troops over the 
Alps, through paths 
knowm only to the 
chamois-hunter. The 
Swiss mercenaries 
guarding the passes 
w^ere taken by surprise, 
and finally beaten in 
the bloody battle of 
Marhjnano (1515). 
The French w^ere in- 
toxicated with joy. 
Francis was dubbed a 
knight on the field by 
the Chevalier Bayard. Milan feU without a blow. The 
Swiss made with France a treaty know^n as the Perpetual 
Peace, since it lasted as long as the old French monarchy. 




FUANCIS 1. (AFTER TITIAN). 



THE AGE OF CHARLES V. 127 

II. THE AGE OF CHARLES V. 

1 THE RIVALRY OF CHARLES AND FRANCIS. 

Spain was now the leading power in Europe. Ferdi- 
nand ruled Spain, Sardinia, Sicily, Naples, and vast regions 
in the New World, — the gift of Columbus to the Castihan 
crown ; while his daughter Joanna was married to Philip, 
son of MaximiHan of Austria, and of Mary, daughter of 
Charles the Bold. When Charles, son of Philip, on the 
death of his grandfather Ferdinand, succeeded to the 
crown of Spain, he added the Low Countries to its pos- 
sessions J and on the death of his other grandfather, Maxi- 
miHan, he inherited the sovereignty of Austria, and was 
elected Emperor of Germany (1519). It was the grandest 
empire Europe had seen since the days of Augustus, unit- 
ing, as it did, under one scepter, the infantry of Spain, the 
looms of Flanders, and the gold of Peru. 

Charles's Rivalry with Francis. — Francis I. had been 
a candidate for the imperial crown, and his vanity was sorely 
hurt by Charles's success. Henceforth these two monarchs 
were bitter enemies. Theb rivalry deluged Eiu-ope in blood. 

Field of the Cloth of Gold (1520).— Before begin- 
ning hostiUties, both kings sought to win the friendship of 
Henry VIII. Francis met Henry near Calais. The mag- 
nificence displayed gave to the field its name. The two 
kings feasted and played together like schoolboys.^ Henry 
swore not to cut his beard until he should again visit his 
" good brother ; " Francis made a like vow, and long beards 
became the latest French fashion. 

But Charles negotiated more quietly, and, while he flat- 
tered the bluff and good-natured Henry, won his all-power- 

1 The three mightiest sovereigns of Europe in the first half of the 16th century- 
Henry VIII. of England, Charles V. of Spain, and Francis I. of France— were all 
orownecl before reaching their majority. 



128 



THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 



[1520. 



ful minister, Cardinal Wolsey, by hopes of the papacy. A 
league was soon after formed of the Pope, the Emperor, and 
the King of England, against Francis. 




FIELD OF THE CLOTH OF GOLD. 

Battle of Pavia (1525). — Italy was again the principal 
battlefield. Francis, anxious to renew the glories of Marig- 
nano, led a magnificent army across the Alps, and besieged 
Pavia. There he was attacked by the imperialists under 
Bourbon.^ At first the French artillery swept all before it. 

1 The Duke of Bourbon was Constable of France ; but, having been neglected by 
the king and wronged by the queen-mother, he fled to the enemy for revenge, drove 
the French out of Italy, and invaded Provence. Francis forced the imperialists back, 
and followed them across the Alps, thus beginning the fatal campaign of Pavia. Dur- 
ing the French retreat. Chevalier Baj^ard was struck by a ball (1524). Bourbon, coming 
up, offered him words of cheer. The dying hero replied, " Think rather of yourself in 
arms against your king, your country, and your oath ! " The universal horror felt in 
France at Bourbon's treachery shows the increased sanctity of the royal authority 
over feudal times, and the influence of the recent revival of classic literature which 
taught treason to one's country to be a crime of the blackest dye. The nobles who 
joined in the " League of the Public Good " with Charles the Bold against Louis XI. 
were not considered traitors, yet that was little over half a century before (Brief 
Hist. France, p. 115). 



1525.] THE AGE OF CHARLES V. 129 

Franois, thinking the enemy about to flee, charged with his 
knights ; in so doing, he came in front of his guns, and thus 
checked their fire. Thereupon the imperialists rallied, and 
a terrible hand-to-hand conflict ensued. The flower of the 
French nobles was cut down. The Swiss, forgetting their 
ancient valor, fled. Francis himself, hemmed in on all 
sides, wounded, unhorsed, and covered with blood and dust, 
at last yielded his sword. 

Treaty of Madrid. — The royal prisoner was carried to 
Madrid, and confined in the gloomy tower of the Alcazar. 
There, pining in captivity, he fell sick. The crafty emperor, 
fearing to lose the ransom, released him, on his agreeing to 
surrender Burgundy and his Italian claims, and give up his 
two sons as hostages. On the way home, Francis vapored 
much about Regulus, but quickly broke his promise,^ and 
signed a treaty with the Pope, Henry, and the Venetians, to 
di'ive the imperialists out of Italy. 

Sack of Rome. — Charles now sent Bourbon into Italy. 
His men being unpaid and eager for plunder, he led them to 
Rome as the richest prize. Bourbon was shot as he was 
placing a ladder, but the infuriated soldiery quickly scaled 
the walls. Never had the Eternal City suffered from Goth 
or Vandal as she now did from the subjects of a Christian 
emperor. The Pope himself, besieged in the Castle of St. 
Angelo, and forced to surrender, was put into close confine- 
ment till he should pay an enormous ransom. ^ The sack 
lasted for months, during which every kind of insult and 

1 He had already provided for this, for, a few hours before siguing the treaty, he 
had called together some faithful frieuds and formally read to them a protest against 
the act he was about to perform, insisting that, as a forced measure, it should be 
considered null and void. Tlieu, with the expressed expectation of breaking it, he 
signed the treaty, pledged to it tlie royal word, and coulirmed that pledge with a 
solemn oath. 

2 When Charles learned that the Pop6 was a prisoner, he ordered his court into 
mourning, and, with strange hypocrisy, directed prayers to be said for the release 
which he could have effected by a word. 



130 THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. [1527. 

outrage was visited upon the unhappy Romans. Henry and 
Francis, who were preparing to invade the Low Countries, 
changed the scene of war upon hearing of the Pope's cap- 
tivity, and the French troops, supported by English money, 
were sent under Lautrec to Rome. A fearful plague, which 
carried off conquerors as well as inhabitants, had preceded 
them, and when they arrived, of all Bourbon's host, scarcely 
500 men sur\dved to evacuate the city. 

Ladies' Peace (1529). — Ere long, however, the French 
met with their usual defeat in Italy; Andi-ea Doria, the 
famous Genoese patriot, going over to Charles, became admi- 
ral of the Spanish fleet ; and so Francis, anxious to recover 
his sons from the emperor, concluded a treaty. As it was 
negotiated by the king's mother and the emperor's aunt, it 
is known in history as the Ladies' Peace. 

The Turks. — Meanwhile Charles had found a new foe, 
and Francis a singular ally. The Turks, under Sultan Soly- 
man the Magnificent, using the cannon that breached the 
walls of Constantinople, had driven the Knights of St. John 
out of the Isle of Rhodes;^ subdued Egypt; devastated 
Hungary ; ^ and even appeared under the walls of Vienna 
(1529). Menaced thus, Charles, notwithstanding his Italian 
triumphs, was very willing to listen to the ladies, when, as we 
have seen, they talked of peace. Soon after, however, Soly- 



1 The knights made a gallant defense, a single man with his arquebus being said 
to have shot five hundred Turks. Tliirty-two Turkish mines were destroyed, but 
finally one burst, throwing down a part of the city wall. The Grand Master, L'Isle 
Adam, rushed from the church where he was at piayer, only to find the Crescent 
already planted in the opening. He instantly dashed into the midst of the Turks, 
tore down the standard, and, with his biave kniglits, drove them back. For thirty- 
four nights he slept in the breach. At last, sorely against his will, the Hospitallers 
agreed to surrender their stronghold. L'Isle Adam sailed away with the survivors. 
Charles gave him the rocky island of Malta. There he establislied a well-nigh im- 
pregnable fortress for the benefit of distressed seamen of every nation. 

2 The Hungarian king having been slain in the battle of Ifohacs (1526), the crown 
ultimately fell to Ids brother-in-law, Ferdinand of Austria, afterward emperor. It 
has ever since been held by the Archdukes of Austria (p. 79). 



1529.] THE AGE OF CHARLES V. 131 

man, having made an alliance with Francis, who cared less 
for differences of faith than for revenge upon the emperor, 
raised a vast army, and, again wasting Hungary, threatened 
Vienna. The flower and strength of Germany rallied under 
Charles's banners, and forced the infidel to an inglorious 
retreat. 

The emperor next sought to cripple the Turkish power by 
sea. Crossing the Mediterranean, he attacked Tunis, which 
Barbarossa, the Algerine pirate in command of Solyman's 
fleet, had seized. In the midst of the desperate struggle 
that ensued, ten thousand Christian slaves, confined in the 
castle, broke theu' fetters, and turned its guns upon their 
masters. The city was carried by assault. The prison doors 
were opened, and the released captives were sent home, to 
the joy of all Christendom. 

The Pope finally mediated a truce between the rivals. 
Charles, while en route to Flanders, visited Paris. Francis, 
in an ecstasy of hospitality, exclaimed to his late enemy, 
" Here we are united, my brother and I. We must have the 
same foes and the same friends. We will equip a fleet 
against the Turks, and Andrea Doria shall be the comman- 
der." Brave words all, but soon forgotten. 

The emperor, thinking to blunt the edge of the Turkish 
saber by a second expedition against the African pirates, 
sailed to Algiers ; but his ships were destroyed by a storm, 
and his troops by a famine. Francis seized the opportunity, 
and raised five great armies to attack Charles's widespread 
empire. Solyman invaded Hungary, and Barbarossa ravaged 
the coasts of Spain and Italy. Europe was amazed to see the 
liUes of France and the crescent of Mohammed appear before 
Nice, and Christian captives sold by the corsairs in the mar- 
ket of Marseilles. It seemed as if the days of Martel had 
returned, and there was again peril of a Mohammedan 



132 THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. [1544. 

empire girding the Mediterranean; only the infidels were 
now brutal Turks instead of refined Saracens. 

Treaty of Crespy (1544). — But this was not to be. 
Henry renewed his alliance with Charles, and they invaded 
France from opposite sides. Charles was beaten at Ceri- 
solles, but Henry pushed to within tw^o days' march of 
Paris. Ah^eady its citizens, panic-struck, had begun to 
move their valuables to Rouen, when Francis sued for 
peace. The Treaty of Crespy ended the wars of these 
monarchs, that for nearly twenty-five years had been so 
fruitful of wrong and misery. 

2. AFFAIRS IN GERMANY. 

Political Contentions. — Germany has been defined at 
this period as " one confused mass of electorates, duchies, 
earldoms, bishoprics, abbeys, imperial free cities and estates 
of the nobility, which, whether great or small, refused to 
yield to one another, and jealously asserted their independ- 
ence." The result was a constant struggle and contention. 
The emperor and the states were unceasingly at variance 
concerning the administration of the laws and matters 
of revenue ; princes fought mth one another over the ex- 
tension of territorial dignities; knights warred against 
princes over their respective rights, and, forming themselves 
into bodies of freebooters, made every highway a scene of 
robbery and murder; while the cities, whose wealth and 
influence excited the hatred of both knights and princes, 
were internally convulsed with bloody quarrels betw^een 
civic authorities and the various guilds. Last of all, the 
peasantry, always chafing under their numerous grievances, 
broke out into occasional insurrections, which were char- 
acterized by shocking barbarities and quelled by equally 
merciless proceedings. 



1517.] THE AGE OF CHARLES V. 133 

Religious Crisis. — Up to tliis period, although from 
time to time serious doctrinal disputes had arisen, each of 
which had left its bitter traces, the See of Rome had main- 
tained its jmisdiction over all the nations in western 
Europe. During the reign of Maximihan,i however, a con- 
troversy was begun which was to lead to a division of 
Christendom into two conflicting and irreconcilable reli- 
gious parties. This general movement is known as The 
Reformation. 

Martin Luther's Theses. — There appeared one day 
on the cathedral door in Wittenberg a Latin document con- 
taining ninety-five theses, or propositions, in which Martin 
Luther,^ an Augustinian monk, challenged all learned men 
to a pubhc controversy upon certain tenets and practices of 
his time. Printed copies of this document quickly found 
their way into every part of Germany, and awakened intense 
excitement. Bitter controversies followed, and in the same 
year that Charles was elected emperor the ban of excom- 
munication was pronounced against Luther unless he should 
retract his doctrines. Luther replied by publicly burning 
the papal bull. The schism had now become extreme. 



1 Maximilian was brave, handsome, learned, of powerful frame, and gentle tem- 
per. "In liim," says Kohlrausch, " was personified for the last time chivalry in all 
its glory." His financial perplexities are prominent features in'*the history of his 
reign. As he was always in straits for money wlien a critical moment arrived, he 
has been given the title of " The Penniless." At this time most of the revenues for- 
merly enjoyed by the Crown were claimed by the estates, and even so insignificant a 
levy for the imperial treasury as the penny-tax, viz., tlie payment by each subject of 
one penny for every thousand pence possessed, was stoutly contested. This chronic 
lack of funds seriously affected the success of Maximilian's many projects. 

2 Martin Luther was born 1483 ; died, 1546. His father was a poor wood-cutter, 
and at fifteen Martin became a " wandering scholar " (see p. 17O) in Eisenach, earn- 
ing his bread, after the custom of the day, by singing in the streets. His diligence, 
studiousness, and sweet voice won the boy many friends, and finally, his father be- 
coming able to aid him, he finished his education at the University of Erfurt. The 
reading of a Bible, then a rare book, and hence chained to a desk in the library, 
awakened his thought, and, against his father's wish, he entered an Augustine mon- 
astery. In 1508 he was appointed professor in the University of Wittenberg, just 
founded by the Elector Frederick of Saxony. 



134 



THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 



[1521. 



The Diet of Worms (1521).— The emperor Charles 
held his first diet at Worms. Thither Luther was sum- 
moned to answer for his heresy. All attempts to induce 




THE DIET OF WOKMS. 



him to recant were fruitless. He was therefore denounced 
as a heretic, and he and his supporters were put under the 
ban of the empire.^ 



1 Charles had publicly declared during the diet that he was " determined to em- 
ploy all his kingdom, friends, body, blood, and even life, to prevent this godless un- 
dertaking from spreading." But he had already promised Laither a safe-conduct, 
and when he was urged to break his word, and not allow Luther to leave the city, 
he nobly replied, "No! I do not mean to blush like Sigismund" (p. 80), Luther's 
friends, however, feared for his safety, and by order of one of his stanchest support- 
ers, the Elector Frederick, he was secretly conveyed to the lonely castle of the Wart- 
burg, where he staid nearly a year. Here he began the translation of the Bible into 
German,— a work which, aided by Melanchthon and other scholars, occupied him for 
several years. Up to this time there was no language accepted throughout the 
empire. The learned wrote in Latin ; the minnesingers, in Swabian ; and many used 
the dialects,— Saxon, Franconian, etc. Luther, passing by the diction of tlie theologi- 



1529.] THE AGE OP CHARLES V. 135 

After the diet, Charles left Germany, and, absorbed in his 
great struggle with Francis, did not return for nine years. 

Meanwhile the new doctrines rapidly spread ^ into north- 
ern Germany, France, Switzerland,^ England, Scotland, 
Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. The Teutonic nations, 
with a few exceptions, finally adopted them in some form, 
while the Latin nations remained faithful to the Church 
of Rome. 

Lutherans called Protestants (1529). — Archduke 
Ferdinand, alarmed by the progress of the reformers under 
Luther and of the Turks under Solyman, called a diet at 
Spires. The Catholics, being in the majority, passed a 
decree forbidding any further change in religion. The 
Lutheran princes and cities formally protested against this 
action, — whence they were called Protestants. 

The Ladies' Peace now giving Charles leisure, he revisited 
Germany, and held a diet at Augsburg.^ A statement of the 

cal schools and the courts, sought the expressive idioms employed by the people. 
For this purpose he visited the market place and social gatherings, often spending 
days over a single phrase. No sentence was admitted into the translation until it had 
crystallized into pure, idiomatic German. The Bible soon became the model of 
style; and its High-German, the standard of cultivated conversation and polite 
literature. 

1 Princes and cities, vexed at the money drained from their people by the Roman 
pontifif, and quite willing to secure the vast possessions of the Church, saw their inter- 
ests lying along the line of the new faith. So " policy was more Lutheran than reli- 
gious reform," and they eagerly seized upon this opportunity to emancipate themselves 
at once from emperor and Pope. Thus the Reformation gradually became a struggle 
for political power quite as much as for religious freedom. 

2 Switzerland had its own reformation. Zwingle, the leader, was more radical 
than Lutlier. He wished to purify State as well as Church. After his death in battle 
the people of Geneva invited thither the great French reformei', Calvin. Ecclesiasti- 
cal courts were established, and a rigid discipline was enforced that reached to tlie 
minutest detail of life. Under this despotic rule, Geneva became the most moral city 
in Europe, and the home of letters and orthodoxy. Calvin's doctrines, more than 
those of any other reformer, molded men's minds. The Huguenots, the Dutch Wal- 
loons, the Scotch Presbyterians, and the New England Puritans, all were stamped 
with his type of thought. 

3 Charles was entertained at the splendid mansion of Anthony Fugger, a famous 
merchant-prince of Augsburg. At the close of the visit, the host invited the emperor 
into his study, and there threw upon a fire of cinnamon— then a very costly spice— the 
bonds which Charles had given him for loans to carry on his wars with Francis. 



136 THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. [1530. 

Protestant doctrine was here read which afterward became 
famous as the Augsburg Confession, — the creed of the Ger- 
man reformers. Instead of with one monk, as at Worms, 
Charles had now to deal with half of Germany. But he 
again denounced the heresy, and put all who held it under 
the ban of the empire. 

Smalcaldic League (1531). — The Protestant princes 
organized at Smalcald for mutual protection. But Soly- 
man having once more marched upon Vienna, Charles, in 
the face of this peril, gi-anted the reformers liberty of con- 
science. Forthwith the Protestants and Catholics gathered 
under the imperial banner, and the Turks hastily retreated, 
Charles now left Germany for another nine-years' absence. 

Smalcaldic War (1546-47). — The Treaty of Crespy free- 
ing Charles from further fear of Francis, he determined to 
crush the Reformation. The Council of Trent (1545-83) 
was caUed ; but the Protestants, taking no part in the deliber- 
ations, rejected its decrees. Meanwhile civil war broke out. 
The Protestant leaders were irresolute. Prince Maurice of 
Saxony, deserting his fellow-reformers, joined Charles, and 
overran the territory of his cousin the Elector Frederick. 
The league fell to pieces. Only Frederick and Philip, the 
landgrave of Hesse, remained in the field. Charles, bold 
and wary as ever, defeated and captured the former, while 
Maurice persuaded the latter, his father-in-law, to smTender. 

Charles's Triumph now seemed complete. The boldest 
Protestant leaders were in prison. The sword of Francis 
and the pen of Luther were both rehcs of the past. Ger- 
many was at last prostrate before her Spanish lord. A 
proud and haughty conqueror,^ he brought Spanish infantry 

1 History, however, records some noble traits in Charles's character. Visiting 
Luther's grave, one of his attendants urged that the hody of the reformer should be 
dug up and burned. The chivalrous emperor replied, " No ! I make war on the living, 
not on the dead." 



1548.] THE AGE OF CHARLES V. 137 

to overawe the disaffected ; forced upon the unwilling people 
the liiterim, — a compromise between the two religions, which 
was hateful to both Catholics and Protestants ; and sought 
to have the succession taken from his brother Ferdinand, 
and given to his son, — the cold and gloomy Philip. 

Maurice revolts. — At this juncture the man who won 
Charles the victory undid his work. Maurice, impatient of 
the name "traitor," and indignant at the continued impris- 
onment of his father-in-law, organized a revolt, and made 
an alliance with Henry II. of France. 

Treaty of Passau. — Suddenly the confederates took 
the field. Henry seized Toul, Verdun, and the strong fortress 
of Metz, without striking a blow. To escape from Maurice, 
the emperor at Innsbruck fled through the stormy night 
along the mountain-paths of the Tyrol.^ The Council of 
Trent broke up in dread. Charles was forced to bend, and, 
by the Treaty of Passau (1552), the captive princes were 
released and religious toleration was partially secured. 

Charles's Abdication (1556). — Imperial disasters now 
followed fast. Charles tried to recover Metz, but was de- 
feated by the Duke of Guise, — a French leader then new to 
fame. The Turkish fleet ravaged the coast of Italy. The 
Pope, offended by the toleration granted the Protestants, 
made an alliance with Henry of France. Charles, sad, 
disappointed, and baffled, laid down the crown.^ His son 



1 Maurice, if he had deemed it politic, could have prevented the escape, but, as 
the emperor himself once said, " Some birds are too big for any cage,"— a truth that 
Charles well learned after the battle of Pavia. 

2 He thus followed the example of DiorlPtian (Aiuv Peo., p. 2G3). After his i-etire- 
ment Charles went to the monastery of St. Just in Spain, Though only fifty-six, hav- 
ing been born in the same year with his century, he was prematurely old,— the victim 
of gluttony. Now, shut in by groves of oak and chestnut, and under the shadow of the 
lofty mountains, the late emperor joined the monks in their religious exercises, or 
amused himself by various mechanical contrivances,— the making of watches and 
curious little puppets. Unable, liowever, to absorb himself in his new life, he eagerly 
watched the tidings of the busy world he had left behind. One day the morbid fancy 



138 THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. [1556. 

Philip II., husband of Mary, Queen of England, received 
Spain, the Netherlands, and the Two Sicilies; while Fer- 
dinand of Austria was chosen emperor. 

End of the War. — Philip for a time continued the 
struggle with France, and won the battle of St. Quentin 
(1557) ;i but Guise's capture of Calais from the English, 
who had held it over two centuries, consoled the French. 
The Treaty of Cdteau-Camhresis (1559) closed the long con- 
test, and emphasized the division of Eui'ope into Catholic 
and Protestant nations. 

The Condition of Germany during the remainder of the 16th 
century was that of mutual fear and suspicion. The Calvinists were 
excluded from the Treaty of Passau, and the feeling between them and 
the Lutherans was as bitter as between both and the Catholics. The 
different parties watched one another with growing dislike and doubt, 
every rustling leaf awakening fresh suspicion. Minor divisions arose 
among the Protestants. Each petty court had its own school of theo- 
logians, and the inspiration of the early reformers degenerated into 
wrangles about petty doctrines and dogmas. No true national life could 
exist in such an atmosphere. Ferdinand I. and his successor, Maximil- 
ian II., managed to hold the unsteady balance betw^een the conflicting 
parties; but under Budolph II., Catholic and Protestant leagues were 
formed. Matthias got his cousin Ferdinand chosen king of Hungary 
and Bohemia ; on the death of Matthias, Ferdinand II. was elected em- 
peror (1619). He was a bitter foe of the Reformation, and the closing 
of two Protestant churches (1618) in his territory proved the signal 
for the Thirty-Years' War (p. 174). 

seized liim to have his funeral services performed. He took part in the solemn 
pageant, standing by the side of his emptj' coffin, holding a torch, and chanting a 
dirge. The real death and funeral followed within three weeks (1558). 

1 When Charles, in his retirement, heard of this victory, he exclaimed, " Is not 
my son now in Paris'?" Philip, however, derived no advantage from it, except the 
glory of the day and the plan of the huge palace of the Escurial, which is builtin paral- 
lel rows like the bars of a gridiron, in memory of St. Lawrence, on whose day the bat- 
tle was fought, and whose martyrdom consisted in being broiled over a slow fire. 



RISE OF THE DUTCH REPUBLIC. 



139 



III. RISE OF THE DUTCH REPUBLIC. . 

The Netherlands, now Holland and Belgium, by the 
marriage of Mary of Burgundy to Maximilian, fell to the 
House of Hapsburg. Wlien her grandson resigned these 
provinces to Philip, they formed the richest possession of 
the Spanish Crown. The looms of Flanders were world- 
renowned. The manufactories of Ghent had one hundred 
thousand artisans. In the Scheldt at Antwerp twenty-five 
hundred ships were often to be seen waiting their turn to 
come to the wharfs, while five thousand merchants daily 
thronged the city exchange. 




DESECKATING A CATHEDRAL. 



Protestantism had made great progress among the 
Netherlanders. Phihp, who declared that he would rather 
be no king than to reign over heretics, sought to crush the 



140 THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. [1567. 

new doctrines by the terrors of the Inquisition.^ The peo- 
ple resisted. Tumults arose, and many beautiful cathedrals 
were sacked by the mob.^ 

The Duke of Alva was now sent thither with an army 
of Spanish veterans (1567). Within six years Alva and his 
dreaded Council of Blood put to death eighteen thousand 
persons, and passed sentence of death upon the entu-e popu- 
lation. Thousands of workmen, fleeing in terror, carried 
to England the manufacturing skill of Bruges and Ghent. 

Meanwhile, William of Nassau, Prince of Orange, known 
in history as The Silent, took the field in defense of his per- 
secuted countrymen. Then began their 

Forty- Years' War (1568-1609) for freedom. This long 
struggle is memorable in history on account of the heroic 
defense the cities made against the Spanish armies.^ The 

1 A deputation of nobles to protest af?ainst this measure was styled bj-^ a scornful 
courtier a " Pack of Beggars." Tliis being reported to the nobles at a banquet, one 
of them hung about his neck a beggar's wallet, and all drank to the toast, " Long 
live the beggars ! " The name became thenceforth their accepted title. 

2 The Netherlands possessed an extraordinary number of magnificent cathedrals, 
adorned with valuable paintings, statues, and the costly gifts of many worshiping 
generations. In the short space of a week nearly every one of these temples had 
been invaded and the priceless treasures destroyed. 

3 Haarlem was besieged by Don Frederick, Alva's son, in 1572. Having breached 
the defenses, he ordered an assault. Forthwith the church bells rang the alarm. 
Men and women flocked to the walls. Thence they showered upon the besieg- 
ers stones and boiling oil, and dexterouslj' threw down over tht'ir necks hoops 
dripping with burning pitch. Spanish courage and ferocity shrunk back appalled at 
such a determined resistance by an entire population. Don Frederick then took 
to mining; the citizens countermined. Spaniard and Netherlander met in deadly 
conflict within passages dimly lighted by lanteins, and so narrow that the dagger 
only could be used. At times, showers of mingled stones, earth, and human bodies, 
shot high into the air, as if from some concealed volcano. The Prince made several 
futile attempts to relieve the city. In one of these, John Hariug sprung upon a narrow 
dike, and alone held in check one tliousand of the enemy until his friends made good 
their escape, when, Horatius-like, he leaped into the sea, and swam off unharmed. 
Hope of rescue finally failed the besieged, and then famine added to their horrora, 
Dogs, cats, and mice were devoured; shoe-leather was soaked and eaten; while 
gaunt specters wandered to and fro, eagerly seizing the scattered spires of grass and 
weeds, to allay the torment of hunger. In the last extremity, the soldiers proposed 
to form a hollow square, put the women and children in the center, fire the city, and 
then cut their way out. The seven-months' siege had taught the Spaniards tlie issue 
of such a struggle of despair, and they offered terms of surrender. But wlien Alva's 
legions were inside the walls, he forgot all save revenge, butchered garrison and citi- 



142 THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. [1576. 

Silent One, with his devotion to duty, constancy in adversity, 
and marvelous statesmanship, is the central figure of the 
contest. In 1576 (two centuries before our '76) he united 
the provinces in a league called the Pacification of Ghent 
But the northern and the southern provinces were unlike 
in race and religion. The former were Teutonic, and 
mostly Protestant; the latter, Celtic, and largely Catholic. 
Jealousies arose. The league fell in pieces. William then 
formed the seven northern provinces into the Union of 
Utrecht^ — the foundation of the Dutch Republic. The Prince 
was chosen first stadtholder. 

Philip, the gloomy tyrant of the Escurial, having set a 
price upon Wilham's head, this patriot leader was assassi- 
nated (1584). When the sad news fiew through Holland, 
even the little children wept in the streets. 

Maurice of Nassau, the Prince's second son, was chosen 
in his father's place. Though only in his seventeenth year, 
he proved to be a rare general ; while at his side stood the 

zens alike, and, when the executioners were weary, tied three hundred wretches 
together, two by two, back to back, and liurled them into the lake. 

Leyden was besieged by Valdez in 1574. A chain of sixty-two forts cut off all 
communication, except by means of carrier pigeons, which, tlj'ing high in air, 
bore tidings between the Prince and the city. (The stuffed skins of these faithful 
messengers are still preserved in tlie town hall.) Soon famine came, more bitter 
even, if possible, than that at Haarlem. The starving crowd was at last driven to the 
burgomaster, demanding food or a surrender. " I have sworn not to yield," was the 
heroic reply; "but take my sword, plunge it into my breast, and divide my tlesh 
among you." Tliese words raised their courage anew, and, clambering upon the walls, 
they took their places again, calling out to the enemy in defiance, " Before we^ive up, 
we will eat our left arms to give strength to our right." The Prince had no armj- to 
send to their relief ; but the Sea Beggars were outside pacing the decks of their ships, 
and chafing at the delay. For though the patriots, crying out that "a drowned 
land is better than a lost land," had cut the dikes to let in the ocean upon their fertile 
fields, the water was too sliallow to float the fleet. One niglit the tempest came. 
The waters of the North Sea were piled high on the Holland coast. The waves, 
driven by a west wind, swept irresistibly over the land. Tlie ships, loaded with 
food, were borne to the very walls of the city. The Spaniards, dismayed by tlie 
incoming ocean, fled in terror. The happj-^ people flocked with tlieir deliverers to 
the cathedral, to pour out their thanksgiving to God. Prayer was offered, and then 
a hymn begun ; but the tide of emotion rose too high, and, checking the song, the 
vast audience wept together tears of joy and gratitude. Read Motley's account in 
the Rise of the Dutch Republic. 



1584.] RISE OF THE DUTCH REPUBLIC. 143 

skillful diplomat and devoted patriot, John of Barueveld. 
In time botli France and England became allies of the states, 
and took part in the struggle (pp. 147, 158). 

The Dutch Sailors early won great renown. Their light, 
active ships beat the clumsy Spanish galleons, ahke in trade 
and war. A Dutch Indiaman would sail to the Antipodes 
and back while a Portuguese or a Spaniard was making the 
outward voyage. The East India Company, founded in 
1602, conquered islands and kingdoms in Asia, and carried 
on a lucrative trade with China and Japan. Spain and 
Portugal, pioneers in the East, now bought spices, silks, 
and gems of Holland merchants. 

EestiU of the War. — The King of Spain, then Philip III., 
was finally forced to grant a truce, in which he treated with 
the seven United Provinces as if free ; though he refused 
formally to acknowledge their independence until the Treaty 
of Westphalia (p. 179). The southern or Belgian provinces 
remained in the possession of Spain. 

Free Holland now took her place among the nations. 
Her fields bloomed like a garden ; her shops rang with the 
notes of industry ; and her harbors bristled with masts. In 
the 17th century she was a power in the European States- 
System, and her alliance was eagerly courted ; while Spain 
fell so rapidly that foreign princes arranged for a division 
of her territory without consulting her sovereign.^ 

1 By the expulsion of the remaining Moors, Philip III. drove out of Spain six 
hundred thousand of her most industrious and thrifty citizens, transferred to other 
countries five sixths of her commerce and manufactures, and reduced the revenue 
over one half. The nation never recovered from this impolitic and unjust act. It 
should be remembered, however, that persecution was the spirit of the age. Even 
the mild Isabella consented to expel the Jews, to the number of one hundred and 
sixty thousand ; and though this edict caused untold misery, yet at the time it was 
lauded as a signal instance of piety. Toleration was not understood, even by the 
reformers of Germany or England, and all parties believed that it was right to 
punish, or, if necessary, to burn a man's body, in order to save his soul. 



144 



THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 



IV. CIVIL-RELIGIOUS WARS OF FRANCE, 



Protestantism took deep root in France, especially 
among the nobility. Though Francis I. and Henry II. aided 
the German reformers in order to weaken Charles V., to 
schism at home they showed no mercy. By the treaties of 
Crespy and Cateau-Cambresis they were pledged to stamp 
out the new religion. Francis relentlessly persecuted the 

Vaudois, a simple moun- 
tain folk of the Pied- 
mont 5 Henry celebrated 
the coronation of his wife, 
Catharine de' Medici, 
with a bonfii'e of heretics, 
and sought to establish 
the Inquisition in France, 
as had been done in the 
Netherlands. In spite 

^^^'^^j^^$^^^\\\\^\s^\^^\^\^\x^^\^^\^t^ ^^ persecution, however, 
\^J^^^^ '^^ ^ ' r Calvinist prayers and 

hymns were heard even 
in the royal palace. The 
Huguenots — as the Protestants were called — ^began to claim 
the same rights that their German brethren had secured at 
^ Passau. Denied these, they organized a revolt. During the 
reigns of Henry II.'s three sons, Francis II., Charles IX., 
and Henry III., who successively came to the throne, France 
was convulsed by the horrors of civil war. 

The Leaders. — The Catholic leaders were the Con- 
stable Montmorenci, and the two Guises, — Francis the 
Duke, and his brother, the Cardinal of Lorraine. They 
were supported by the Church and Spain. 




CATHARINE DE' MEDICI. 



1559.] CIVIL-RELIGIOUS WARS OF FRANCE. 



145 




\^^mw^^'^ 



ADMIRAL COLIGNY. 



At the head of the 
Huguenots stood the 
King of Navarre and 
the Prince of Conde, — 
both Bourbons claim- 
ing descent from St. 
Louis, — and Admiral 
Coligny, nephew of 
Montmorenci. They 
were befriended by the 
reformers of Germany, 
England, and the Neth- 
erlands. 

The Situation. — The remaining kings of the Valois line 
were young, weak, and unfit to contend with the profound 
questions and violent men of the time. The Bourbons hated 
the Guises, and each plotted the other's ruin. Catharine, 
a wily, heartless ItaUan, moving between the factions like a 
spirit of evil, schemed for power. Her maxim was, " Divide 
and govern." She cared little for religion, but opposed 
the Huguenots because their aristocratic leaders sought to 
strengthen the nobles at the expense of the king. Thus 
political mingled with religious motives, and the struggle 
was quite as much for the triumph of rival chiefs as for 
that of any form of faith. 

Francis II. (1559-60), a sickly boy of sixteen, fascinated 
by the charms of his girl- wife, the beautiful Mary Queen of 
Scots, was ruled, through her, by her uncles, the Guises. 
The Bourbons planned to remove the king from their influ- 
ence. The Guises detected the plot, and took a ferocious 
revenge. Conde himseK escaped only by the king's sudden 
death. Mary returned to Scotland to work out her sad 
destiny (p. 157). 



146 



THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 



[1560. 



Charles IX. (1560-74), a child-king of ten, was now 
pushed to the front. Catharine, as regent,^ tried to hold the 
balance between the two parties. But the CathoUcs, becom- 
ing exasperated, resented every concession to the Hugue- 
nots ; while the Huguenots, growdng exultant, often inter- 
rupted the worship and broke the images in the Catholic 

churches. One Sunday 
(1562) the Duke of Guise 
was riding through Vassy. 
as a Huguenot congre- 
gation were gathering for 
worship. His attendants, 
sword in hand, fell upon 
the Protestants. This 
massacre was the open- 
ing scene in 

A Series of Eiglit Civil 
Wars, which, interrupted 
by seven short and un- 
steady treaties of peace, 
lasted, in aU, over thirty 
years. Plots, murders, 
Guise was assassinated ; Conde 
was shot in cold blood. Navarre and Montmorenci, more 
fortunate, fell in battle. Guise was succeeded by his brother 
Henry, while Navarre's place was taken by his gallant son, 
afterward Henry IV. 

The Treaty of St. Germain, the third lull of hostilities in 
this bloody series, gave promise of permanence. Charles 




HENRY, DUKE OF GUISE. 



treacheries, thickened fast. 



1 It is noticeable that about this time a large part of Europe was governed by 
women,— England, by Elizabeth ; Spain, by Juana, princess regent ; the Netherlands, 
by Margaret of Parma, acting as regent for Philip ; Navarre, by Queen Jane ; Scot- 
land, by Mary ; and Portugal, by the regent-mother, Catharine of Audtria, sister of 
Charles V. 



1572.] CIVIL-RELIGIOUS WARS OP FRANCE. 147 

offered his sister Margaret in marriage to Henry of Navarre. 
The principal Huguenots flocked to Paris to witness the 
wedding festivities. Cohguy won the confidence of the 
king, and an army was sent to aid the reformers in the 
Netherlands. Catharine, seeing her power waning, resolved 
to assassinate Coligny. The attempt failed; the Hugue- 
nots swore revenge. In alarm, Catharine with her friends 
decided to crush the Huguenot party at one horrible blow. 
With difficulty, Charles was persuaded to consent to 

The Massacre of 8t. BartJwlomew (August 24, 1572). 
Before daybreak the impatient Catharine gave the signal. 
Instantly lights gleamed from the windows. Bands of 
murderers thronged the streets. Guise himseK hurried to 
Coligny's house; his attendants rushed in, found the old 
man at prayer, stabbed him to death, and threw his body 
from the window, that Guise might feast his eyes upon his 
fallen enemy. Everywhere echoed the cry, "Kill! kiU!" 
The slaughter went on for days. In Paris alone hundreds of 
persons perished; while in the provinces each city had its 
own St. Bartholomew. 

Result — The Huguenots, dazed for a moment, flew to 
arms with the desperation of despair. Many moderate 
CathoHcs joined them. Charles, unable to banish from his 
eyes the horrible scenes of that fatal night, died at last a 
victim of remorse. 

Henry III. (1574-89) next ascended the throne. Friv- 
olous and vicious, he met with contempt on every side. The 
violent Catholics formed a "League to extirpate Heresy.'^ 
Its leader was the Duke of Guise, who now threatened to 
become another Pepin to a second Childeric. The king had 
this dangerous rival assassinated in the royal cabinet. Paris 
rose in a frenzy at the death of its idol. Henry fled for 
protection to the Huguenot camp. A fanatic, instigated by 



148 



THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 



[1589. 



Guise's sister, entered his tent and stabbed the monarch to 
the heart. Thus ended the Valois line.^ 

Henry of Navarre (1589-1610) now became king as 
Henry IV., the first of the Bourbon House (p. 49). To 
crush the League, however, took five years more of war. 
The crisis came at Ivry^ where the Huguenots follow^ed 
Henry's white plume to a signal victory. Finally, in order 
to end the struggle, he abjured the Protestant rehgion. 
The next year he was crowned at Paris (1594). 

Henry^s Administration brought to France a sweet calm 
after the turmoil of war. By the Udict of Nantes (1598), 

he granted toleration to the 
Huguenots. With his fa- 
mous minister, Sully, he re- 
stored the finances, erected 
pubhc edifices^ built ships, 
encouraged silk manufacture, 
and endowed schools and 
libraries. The common peo- 
ple found in him a friend, 
and he often declared that 
he should not be content 
until "the poorest peasant 
in his realm had a fowl for 
his pot every Sunday." This 
prosperous reign was cut short by the dagger of the assas- 
sin Ravaillac (1610). 

1 It is a house distinguished for misfortunes. Every monarch save one (Charles V.) 
left a record of loss or sliame. Pliilin VI. was defeated at Sluj's and Cr6cy, and lost 
Calais. John, beaten at Poitiers, died a prisoner in England. Charles VI., conquered 
at Agincourt, was forced to acknowledge the English monarch heir of his kingdom. 
Charles VII. owed his crown to a peasant girl, and tinall}'^ starved himself for fear of 
poisoning by his son. Louis XI., taken prisoner by Burgundy, was fordays in danger 
of execution ; he died hated by all. Cliarles VIII. and Louis XII. met reverses in 
Italy. Francis I. was taken prisoner at Pavia. Henry II. suffered the sting of the 
defeat at St. Quentin, and was slain in a tilting match. Francis II. fortunately died 
young. Charles IX. perished with the memory of St. Bartholomew resting upon 
him; and Henry III. was murdered. 




ENGLAND UNDER THE TUDORS. 149 

V. ENGLAND UNDER THE TUDORS (1485-1603). 

The Tudor Rule covered, in general, the sixteenth 
century. Then began the era of absolutism, such as Louis 
XI. had introduced into France, but which was curbed in 
England by the Charter, Parliament, and the free spirit of 
the people. The characteristic features of the period were 
the rise of Protestantism, the growth of commerce, and the 
development of learning and literature. 

TABLE OF THE TUDOR LINE. 

HENRY VII. (1485-1509), m. ELIZABEIH OF YORK. 

I 



MARGARET. HENRY VIII. (1509-47). 



I III 

JAMES V. OF SCOTLAND. EDWARD VI. (1547). MARY (1553). ELIZABETH (1558), 

I 
MARY QUEEN OF SCOTS. 

James VI. of Scotland, and l. of England. Stuart Line (p. 188). 

1. Henry VII. (1485-1509), hailed king on the field of 
Bosworth, by his marriage with Elizabeth of York blended 
the roses (p. 40). The ground-swell of the civil war, how- 
ever, still agitated the country. Two impostors claimed the 
throne. Both were put down after much bloodshed. Hen- 
ry's ruling trait was avarice. Promising to invade France, 
he secured supplies from Parhament, extorted from wealthy 
persons gifts, — curiously termed " benevolences," ^ — crossed 
the Channel, made peace (secretly negotiated from the first) 
with Charles VIII. for £149,000, and returned home enriched 
at the expense of friend and foe. He punished the nobles 
with fines on every pretext, and his lawyers revived musty 
edicts and forgotten tenures in order to fill the royal coffers 
under the guise of law. 

1 His favorite minister, Morton, devised a dilemma known as "Morton's fork," 
since a rich man was sure to be canglit on one tine or the other. A frugal person 
was asked for money because he must have saved much, and an extravagant one 
because he had much to spend. 



150 THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. [1502. 

Henry's tyranny, however, reached only the great. He 
gave rest to the people. He favored the middle classes, and, 
by permitting the poorer nobles to sell their lands regard- 
less of the '^entail," enabled prosperous merchants to .buy 
estates. He also encouraged commerce, and under his 
patronage the Cabots explored the coast of America. 

In 1502 Henry's daughter Margaret was married to James 
IV. of Scotland. This wedding of the rose and the thistle 
paved the way to the union of the two kingdoms under 
the Stuarts, a century later. 

2. Henry VIII. (1509-47) at eighteen succeeded to the 
throne and his father's wealth. For the first time since 
Richard II., the king had a clear title to the crown. Young, 
handsome, witty, fond of sport, and skillful in arms. Bluff 
King Hal, as he was called, was, in the first years of his 
reign, the most popular king in English history. 

Foreign Relations. — While Henry was winning the battle 
of the Spurs (p. 126), Scotland as usual sided with France. 
James IV., though Henry's brother-in-law, invaded England. 
But on Flodden Field (1513) he was slain with the flower of 
the Scots. Soon England came, as we have seen, to hold 
the balance of power between Charles V. and Francis I. 
Lest either should grow too strong, Henry always took 
the part of the one who happened at the time to be the 
weaker. Such wars brought no good to any one. 

Thomas Wolsey, the son of a butcher, who rose from a 
priest to be Archbishop of York, Lord Chancellor of Eng- 
land, Cardinal, and Papal Legate, was Henry's minister. 
He lived with almost royal splendor. His household com- 
prised 500 nobles, and he was attended everywhere by a train 
of the first barons of the land. The direction of foreign 
and domestic affairs rested with him. As chancellor, he 
administered justice ; as legate, he controlled the Church. 



1533.] 



ENGLAND UNDER THE TUDORS. 



151 



CatJidrine^s Divorce. — For nearly twenty years Henry 
lived happily with his wife, Catharine of Aragon, widow of 
his elder brother, and annt of Charles V. Bnt of their 
children, Mary, a sickly girl, alone survived. Should Henry 
leave no son, the 
royal succession 
would be imper- 
iled, as no woman 
had as yet occu- 
pied the throne. 
The recent civil war 
emphasized this 
dread. Henry pro- 
fessed to fear that 
the death of his 
children was a 
judgment upon him 
for having married 
his brother's wid- 
ow. His scruples 
were quickened, 
perhaps even sug- 
gested, by the 

charms of Anne Bolej^n, a beautiful maid of honor. Henry 
accordingly applied to Pope Clement VII. for a divorce, 
alleging the stings of his conscience as a reason therefor. 
The Pope hesitated, and the affair dragged on for years. 
The universities and learned men at home and abroad 
were consulted. At last Henry privately married Anne. 
Thomas Cranmer,i who had been appointed Archbishop of 




PORTRAITS OF HENRY VIII. AND CARDINAL WOLSEY. 



1 It is curious that the four most remarkable men of Henry's administration— 
Wolsey, Cranmer, Cromwell, and More— all had the same given name, Thomas, and 
all were executed except Wolsey, who escaped the scaffold only by death. 



152 THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. [1533. 

Canterbury on account of his zeal in the king's cause, then 
pronounced Catharine's marriage illegal (1533)^ The for- 
saken wife died three years later. But more than the fate of 
queen or maid of honor was concerned in this royal whim. 

Wolsey^s Fall (1530). — Wolsey, as legate, had hesitated to 
declare a divorce without the papal sanction. Henry, brook- 
ing no opposition, determined on his minister's disgrace. 
Stripped of place and power, the old man was banished 
from the court. Soon after, he was arrested for treason; 
while on his way to prison he died, broken-hearted at his 
faU.i 

Breach tvitli Rome. — Henry had no sympathy with the 
Reformation. Indeed, he had wi'itten a book against Lu- 
ther^s doctrines, for which he had received, as a reward 
from the Pope, the title of the Defender of the Faith. 
But Cromwell, who after Wolsey's fall became Henry's chief 
minister, advised the king not to trouble himself about the 
papal decision, but to deny the Pope's supremacy. Link by 
link the chain that had so long bound England to Rome 
was broken. Parliament declared Anne's marriage legal, 
forbade appeals or payments to the Pope, and acknowledged 
the king as supreme head of the English Church.^ All who 
refused to take the Oath of Supremacy were proclaimed 
guilty of high treason.^ The monasteries were suppressed, 

1 His last words, as given almost literally by Shakspere, have become famous : 

" O Cromwell, Cromwell, 
Had I but served my God with half the zeal 
I served my king. He would uot in my age 
Have left me naked to mine enemies."— Henry VIII., Act III., Scene 2, 

2 This position gave Henry an almost sacred character. Parliament directed that, 
within certain limits, his proclamations should have the force of law; and, at the 
simple mention of his name, that body rose and bowed to his vacant throne. 

3 The heads of the noblest in England now rolled upon the scaffold. Among those 
who suffered death were John Fisher, the venerable Bishop of Rochester, believed 
by many to have been the real author of Henry's book ; and Sir Thomas More, a man 
of great wit and brilliant intellect, who was lord chancellor for a time after Wol- 
sey's fall. Both these men agreed to support the succession, but would not deny 
the validity of Catharine's marriage or the supremacy of the Pope. 



1539.] 



ENGLAND UNDER THE TUDORS. 



153 



and their vast estates confiscated. A part of tlieir revenues 
was spent in founding schools, but the larger share was 
lavished upon the king's favorites. 




THE CHAINED BHiLE. 
(Scene in a Church Porch, 16th Century.) 

The Six Articles. — A copy of the Bible, translated by 
Tyndale and revised by Coverdale, was ordered to be chained 
to a pillar or desk in every church. Crowds of the common 
people flocked around to hear its truths read to them in 
their mother-tongue. Henry di'ew up the famous Six Arti- 
cles of Religion for the Chiu-ch of England.^ But, with his 
usual fickleness, he afterward pubhshed in succession two 
books, each giving to the nation a different creed, and 

1 Fox wittily teimefl this statute " The whip with six strings." 



154 THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. [1536. 

finally restricted to merchants and gentlemen the royal per- 
mission to read the Bible. Both Protestants and CathoHcs 
were persecuted with great impartiality; the former for 
rejecting Henry's doctrines, and the latter for denying his 
supremacy. 

Henry's Six Wives. — Anne Boleyn wore her coveted 
crown only three years. A charge of unfaithfulness brought 
her to the scaffold within less than five months from the 
death of the discarded Catharine (1536). The very day after 
Anne's execution, Henry married Jane Seymour, a maid of 
honor whose pretty face had caught his changeful fancy; 
she died the following year. His fourth wife was Anne of 
GleveSj a Protestant princess. Her plain looks disappointed 
the king, who had married her by proxy, and he soon 
obtained a divorce by act of Parliament. Cromwell had 
arranged this match, and the result cost him his head. 
Henry next married Catharine Howard, but her bad con- 
duct was punished by death. The last of the series was 
Catharine Parr, a widow, who, to the surprise of all, man- 
aged to keep her head upon her shoulders until the king 
died in 1547. 

3. Edward VI. (1547-53), son of Jane Seymour, as- 
cended the throne in his tenth year. The Duke of Somerset 
became regent. 

The Ecdesiastical Changes which had begun by the sev- 
erance from Rome were continued. Archbishop Cranmer, 
seconded by Bishops Ridley and Latimer, was foremost in 
shaping the changes in ceremony and doctrine that gave to 
the English Church a Protestant form. The Latin mass 
was abolished. The pictures and statues in the churches 
were destroyed. The Book of Common Prayer was com- 
piled, and the faith of the Anglican Church summed up in 
the Forty-two (now Thirty-nine) Articles of Religion. 



1552.] ENGLAND UNDER THE TUDORS. 155 

The Diike of Northumberland, having brought Somerset 
to the scaffold, for a time ruled England. He persuaded 
Edward to set aside his half-sisters, Mary and Elizabeth, 
who were next in the succession according to the will of 
Henry VIII., and to leave the crown to his cousin. Lady 
Jane Grey, the young wife of Lord Dudley, — Northumber- 
land's son. Soon after, the gentle and studious Edward 
died. 

4, Mary (1553-58), however, was the people's choice, and 
she became the first queen-regnant of England. Lady Jane, 
a charming gu-1 of sixteen, who found her greatest delight in 
reading Plato in the window-corner of a library, though pro- 
claimed by Northumberland against her wish, was sent to the 
Tower ; a year afterward, on the rising of her friends, she 
and her husband were beheaded. As an ardent Catholic, 
Mary sought to reconcile England to the Pope. The laws 
favoring the Protestants were repealed, and a number of 
persons were burned as heretics. Among these were Cran- 
mer, Latimer, and Ridley. The queen was married to her 
cousin, afterward Philip 11. of Spain. The Spanish alli- 
ance was hateful to the English ; while Philip soon tired of 
his haggard, sickly wife, whom he had chosen merely to 
gratify his father. She, however, idolized her husband, and, 
to please him, joined in the war against France. As the 
result she lost Calais, which had been for more than two 
hundred years an English possession. The humbled queen 
died soon after, declaring that the name of this stronghold 
would be found written on her heart. 

5. Elizabeth (1558-1603), the last of the Tudor sover- 
eigns, was the daughter of Anne Boleyn. Self -poised, cour- 
ageous, and determined, like all the Tudors, she thoroughly 
understood the temper of the nation ; knew when to 
command and when to yield ; and was more than a match 



156 



THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 



[1558. 



for any politician 
at home or abroad. 
She brought about 
her wise statesmen 
hke William Cecil 
(Lord Bui'leigh) 
and Francis Wal- 
singham. She re- 
stored the Protes- 
tant religion, and 
gave the Church 
of England its 
present form. She 
dechned marriage 
to Philip II., say- 
ing that she was 
wedded to her 
reahn, and would 
never bring in a 
foreign master. 
Acts of Supremac}/ and Uniformity were passed by her first 
Parliament. The former act compelled every clergyman and 
office-holder to take an oath acknowledging Elizabeth as head 
of the Church of England, and to abjure every foreign prince 
and prelate ; the latter forbade attendance upon the ministry 
of any clergyman except of the estabhshed religion, and 
inflicted a fine on all who did not go to service. Both the 
Catholics and the Puritans ^ opposed these measures, but for 
some years met with the Church of England for worship. 

1 These Protestants desired what they called a purer form of worship than the 
one adopted for the Church of England, i. e , one further removed from that of Rome. 
Many usages retained by Elizabeth, such as wearing the surplice, making the sign of 
the cross in baptism, etc., gave them offense. As they refused to accept tlie Act of 
Uniformity, they were known as Nonconformists ; those who afterward formed sepa- 
rate congregations were caned Separatists and Independents (Hist. U. S., p. 53). 




PORTKAITS OF QUEEN ELIZABETH AND MARY QUEEN 
OF SCOTS. 



1556, 1570.] ENGLAND UNDER THE TUDORS. 157 

Afterward they began to withdraw, and each to hold its own 
services in private honses. The Act of Uniformity was, how- 
ever, rigidly enforced. Many Catholics were executed. The 
Nonconformists were punished by fine, imprisonment, and 
exile, but their dauntless love of liberty and fii-m resistance 
to royal authority gave the party great strength. 

Marij Queen of Scots, grandniece of Henry VIII., was 
the next heir to the EngUsh throne. At the French court 
she had assumed the title of Queen of England; and the 
Catholics, considering the marriage with Anne Boleyn void, 
looked upon her as their legitimate sovereign. After the 
death of Francis II. she returned to Scotland. The Refor- 
mation, under the preaching of John Knox, had there made 
great progress. Mary's Catholicism aroused the hostility of 
her Protestant subjects, and her amusements shocked the 
rigid Scotch reformers as much as their austerity displeased 
the gay and fascinating queen. She was soon married to her 
cousin Lord Darnley. His weakness and vice quickly for- 
feited her love. One day, with some of his companions, he 
dragged her secretary, Rizzio, from her supper-table, and 
murdered him almost at her feet. Mary never forgave this 
brutal crime. A few months later the lonely house in which 
Darnley was lying sick was blown up, and he was killed. 
Mary's marriage soon after with the Earl of Bothwell, the 
suspected murderer, aroused deep indignation. She was 
forced to resign the crown to her infant son, James VI. 
Finally she fled to England, where Elizabeth held her as a 
prisoner. For over eighteen years the beautiful captive 
was the center of innumerable conspiracies. The discovery 
of a plot to assassinate EUzabeth and put her rival on the 
throne brought the unfortunate Mary to the block (1587). 

1 A scaffold covered with black cloth was built in the hall of Fotheringay Castle. 
In the gray light of a February morning, Mary appeared attired in black, her radiant 



158 



THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 



[1588. 



The Invmcihle Armada. — As Elizabeth aided the Protes- 
tants in the Netherlands/ and her daring cruisers greatly 

annoyed the Spanish commerce, 
PhiUp resolved to conquer Eng- 
land. For three years Spain 
rang with the din of preparation. 
The danger united England, 
and Catholics and Protestants 
alike rallied around their queen. 
The command of the fleet was 
given to Lord Howard (a Cath- 
olic nobleman), while under him 
served Drake, Hawkins, and 
Frobisher. One day in July, 
1588, the Armada was descried 
off Plymouth, one hundred and 
forty ships sailing in a crescent 
form, seven miles in length. 
Beacons flashed the alarm from 
every hill along the coast, and 
the English ships hurried to 
the attack. Light, swift, and 
manned by the boldest seamen, they hung on the rear of the 
advancing squadron ; poured shot into the unwieldy, slow- 
sailing Spanish galleons ; clustered like angry wasps about 




PHILIP II. OF SPAIN. 



beauty diiumecl by her long imprisonment, but her courage unshaken. Throwing off 
her outer robe, beneath which was a crimson dress, slie stood fortli against the black 
background blood-red from head to foot. With two blows the executioner did his 
work, and Mary's stormy life was ended. The execution of Mary is considered by 
many as the greatest blot on the memory of Queen Elizabeth. 

1 Elizabeth's favorite, the worthless Earl of Leicester, conducted an expedition 
to Holland (p. 143), but it effected nothing. The engagement before Zutphen, how- 
ever, is famous for tlie death of Sir Philip Sidney,— "the Flower of Chivalrie." In 
his dying agony, he begged for a drink of water. Just as he lifted tlie cup to his lips, 
he caught the wistful glance of a wounded soldier near by, and exclaimed, "Give it 
to him. His need is greater than mine." 



1588.] ENGLAND UNDER THE TUDORS. 159 

their big antagonists; and, darting to and fro, prolonged 
the fight, off and on, for a week. The Spaniards then took 
refuge in the roads of Calais. Here the Duke of Parma 
was to join them with seventeen thousand veterans ; but in 
the dead of night Howard sent into the port blazing fire- 
ships, and the Spaniards, panic-struck, stood to sea. With 
daylight the English started in keen pursuit. The Spanish 
admu-al, thinking no longer of victory "but only of escape, 
attempted to return home by sailing around Scotland. 
Fearful storms arose. Ship after ship, crippled in spar 
and hull, went down before the fury of the northern blasts. 
Scarcely one third of the fleet escaped to tell the fearful 
tale of the loss of the Spanish Armada. 

The Effect of this victory was to make England mistress of 
the sea, to insure the independence of HoUand, to encourage 
the Huguenots in France, and to weaken Spanish influence 
in European affairs. From this shipwreck dates the decay 
of Spain (p. 143). 

Commerce was encouraged by Elizabeth, and her reign was 
an era of maritime adventure. The old Viking spirit blazed 
forth anew. Enghsh sailors — many of whom were, by turns, 
explorers, pirates, and Protestant knight-errants — traversed 
every sea. Frobisher, daring Arctic icebergs, sought the 
Northwest Passage. Drake sailed round the world, captur- 
ing en route many a gaUeon laden with the gold and silver of 
the New World. Hawkins traced the coast of Guinea. Sir 
Walter Raleigh attempted to plant a colony in Virginia, so 
named, by this courtier's tact, after the Virgin Queen. In 
1600 the East India Company was formed, and from this 
sprung the English empire in India. 

Elizabeth^ s Favorites cast a gleam of romance over her 
reign. Notwithstanding her real strength and ability, she 
was capricious, jealous, petulant, deceitful, and vain as any 



160 



THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 



[1586. 



coquette. With waning beauty, she became the greedier 
of compliments. Her youthful courtiers, humoring this 
weakness, would, while approaching the throne, shade 
their eyes with their hands, as if dazzled by her radiance. 
Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester, and son of Northumber- 
land (p. 155), was her earliest favorite.^ After Leicester's 

death, the Earl of Essex 
succeeded to the royal 
regard. Once, during a 
heated discussion, Essex 
turned his back upon 
Elizabeth, whereupon 
she boxed his ears. The 
favorite, forgetting his 
l^osition, laid his hand 
upon his sword. But 
the queen forgave the 
insult, and sent him to 
Ireland, then in revolt. 
Essex met with little suc- 
cess, and, against Ehza- 
beth's orders, returned, 
and rushed into her 
presence unannounced. 
Though forgiven again, he was restive under the restrictions 
imposed, and made a wild attempt to raise a revolt in Lon- 
don. For this he was tried and beheaded. Even at the 
last, his life would have been spared, if Elizabeth had 
received a ring which, in a moment of tenderness, she had 
given him to send her whenever he needed her help. 




TOMB OF (^UKKX ELIZAHKIH. 



1 Of the magnificent entertainment given to Elizabetli in his castle, of the story 
of the ill-fated Amy Robsart, and of the queen's infatuation with this arrogant, vicious 
man, Scott has told in his inimitable tale of Kenilworth. 



1603.] THE CIVILIZATION. 161 

Two years later, the Countess of Nottingham on her death- 
bed revealed the secret. Essex had intrusted her with the 
ring, but she withheld it from the queen. Ehzabeth in her 
rage shook the expiring woman, exclaiming, " God may for- 
give you, but I never can." From this time, the queen, 
sighing, weeping, and refusing food and medicine, rapidly 
declined to her death (1603). 

THE CIVILIZATION. 

The Progress of Civilization during the first modem century 
was rapid. The revival of learning that swept over Europe, heralding 
the dawn of the new era ; the outburst of maritime adventure that fol- 
lowed the discovery of America ; the spread of the "New Learning " by 
means of books, schools, and travel ; and the establishment of strong, 
centralized governments, — all produced striking results. 

Commerce. — The wonderful development of commerce we have 
already traced in connection with the history of Spain, Portugal, Hol- 
land, England, etc. The colonies of these nations now formed a large 
portion of their wealth. The navies of Europe were already formid- 
able. Sovereign and people alike saw, in foreign trade and in distant 
discoveries and conquests, new sources of gain and glory. 

Art. — Italy had now become the instructress of the nations. She 
gave to the world Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Correggio, Michael 
Angelo, Titian, Paul Veronese, Andrea del Sarto, Guido Reni, Ben- 
venuto Cellini, — masters of art, whose works have been the models for 
all succeeding ages. Painting, sculpture, and architecture felt the 
magic touch of their genius. The intercourse with. Italy caused by the 
Italian wars did much to naturalize in France that love of art for which 
she has since been so renowmed. Francis I. brought home with him 
sculptors and painters ; and a new style of architecture, known as the 
French Renaissance, arose. 

Literature. — England bore the choicest fruit of the Revival of 
Learning. All the Tudors, except Henry VII. , were scholars. Henry 
VIII. spoke four languages ; and Elizabeth, after she became queen, 
"read more Greek in a day," as her tutor, old Roger Ascham, used to 
say, "than many a elergjTuan read of Latin in a week." During the 
brilliant era following the defeat of the Armada, the English language 
took on its modern form. Poetry, that had been silent since the days 
of Chaucer, broke forth anew. Never did there shine a more splendid 
galaxy of writers than when, toward the end of the 16th century, 



162 



THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY 



there were in London, Shakspere, Bacon, Spenser, Chapman, Drayton, 
Kaleigh, Ben Jonson, Marlowe, and Sir Philip Sidney. Shakspere per- 
fected the drama ; Bacon develojDed a new philosophy ; Hooker shaped 
the strength of prose, and Spenser, the harmony of poetry. 




Sidney. Shakspere. Kaleigh. 

THE GLOKY OF THE ELIZABETHAN AGE. 



Spenser. 



Modern Science already began to manifest glimpses of the new 
methods of thought. The fullness of its time was not to come until 
our own day. Copernicus taught that the sun is the center of the solar 
system. Vesalius, by means of dissection, laid the foundation of 
anatomy. Galileo, in the cathedral at Pisa, caught the secret of the 
pendulum. Kepler was now watching the planets. Gilbert, Eliza- 
beth's physician, was making a few electrical experiments. Gesner 
and Csesalpinus were finding out how to classify animals and plants. 
Palissy, the potter, declared his belief that fossil shells were once real 
shells. 



"MERRIE ENGLANDE" UNDER "GOOD QUEEN BESS." 

Home Life. — Mansions. — The gloomy walls and serried battle- 
ments of the feudal fortress now gave place to the pomp and grace of 
the Elizabethan hall. A mixed and florid architecture, the transition 
from Gothic to Classical, marked the dawn of the Renaissance. Tall 
molded and twisted chimneys, grouped in stacks ; crocketed and gilded 
turrets ; fanciful weather-vanes ; gabled and fretted fronts ; great oriel 



THE CIVILIZATION. 163 

windows ; and the stately terraces and broad flights of steps which led 
to a formal garden, — marked the exterior of an Elizabethan mansion. 
In the interior were spacious apartments approached by grand stair- 
cases ; immense mullioned and transomed windows ; huge carved oak 
or marble chimney-pieces, reaching up to gilded and heavily orna- 
mented ceilings ; and wainscoted walls covered with pictorial tapestries 
so loosely hung as to furnish a favorite hiding-place. Chimneys and 
large glass windows were the especial "modern improvements." The 
houses, which three centuries before were lighted only by loop-holes, 
now reveled in a broad glare of sunlight ; and the newly found ' ' chim- 
ney-corner " brought increased domestic pleasure. Manor-houses were 
built in the form of the letter E (in honor of the Queen's initial), having 
two projecting wings, and a porch in the middle. A flower-garden was 
essential, and a surrounding moat was still common. Town-houses, 
constructed of an oak frame filled in with brick or with lath-and-plaster, 
had each successive story projecting over the next lower ; so that in 
the narrow streets the inmates on the upper floor could almost shake 
hands with their neighbors across the way. 

Furniture, even in noble mansions, was still rude and defective ; 
and though the lofty halls and banqueting-rooms were hung with costly 
arras and glittered with plate, — to possess less than a value of £100 in 
silver plate being a confession of poverty, — the rooms in daily use were 
often bare enough, Henry VIII. 's bed-chamber contained only the 
bed, two Flemish court-cupboards, a joined stool, a steel mirror, and 
the andirons, firepan, tongs, and fire-forks belonging to the hearth. It 
was an age of ornamental ironwork, and the 16th-century hearth and 
household utensils were models of elegant design. The chief furniture 
of a mansion consisted of grotesquely carved dressers or cupboards ; 
round, folding tables ; a few chests and presses ; sometimes a household 
clock, which was as yet a rarity; a day-bed or sofa, considered an 
excess of luxury ; carpets for couches and floors ; stiff, high-backed 
chairs ; and some " forms," or benches, with movable cushions. The bed 
was still the choicest piece of furniture. It was canopied and festooned 
like a throne ; the mattress was of the softest down ; the sheets were 
Holland linen ; and over the blankets was laid a coverlet embroidered 
in silk and gold with the arms of its owner. There were often several 
of these cumbersome four-posters in one chamber. A portable bed was 
carried about in a leathern ease whenever the lord traveled ; for he was 
no longer content, like his ancestors, with the floor or a hard bench. 

The poorer classes of Elizabeth's time had also improved in condi- 
tion. Many still lived in hovels made of clay-plastered wattles, hav- 
ing a hole in the roof for chimney, and a clay floor strewed with rushes, 
"under which," said Erasmus, "lies unmolested an ancient collection 
of beer, grease, fragments, bones, and everything nasty." These were 



164 



THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 



the people whose uncleanly habits fed the terrible plagues that period- 
ically raged in England. But houses of brick and stone as well as of 
oak were now abundant among the yeomanry. The wooden ladle and 
trencher had given way to the pewter spoon and platter; and the 
feather bed and pillow were fast displacing the sack of straw and 
the log bolster. Sea-coal (mineral coal) began to be used in the better 
houses, as the destruction of forests had reduced the supply of firewood. 
The dirt and sulphurous odor of the coal prejudiced many against its 
use, and it was forbidden to be burned in London during the sitting of 
Parliament, lest the health of the country members should suffer. 




A GROUP OK COURTIEUS IN THE TIME OF ELIZABETH. 



Dress. — The fashionable man now wore a large starched ruff; a 
padded, long-waisted doublet ; ' ' trunk-hose " distended with wool, hair, 
bran, or feathers, — a fashion dating from Henry VIII., whose flattering 
courtiers stuffed their clothes as the king grew fat ; richly ornamented 
nether stocks, confined with jeweled and embroidered garters ; gemmed 
and rosetted shoes ; and, dangling at dangerous angles over all, a long 
Toledo blade. The courtiers glistened with precious stones, and even 
the immortal Shakspere wore rings in his ears ! The ladies appeared 
in caps, hats, and hoods of every shajje, one of the prettiest being that 
now known as the Mary Queen of Scots cap. The hair was dyed, curled, 
frizzed, and crimped, in a variety of forms and colors. Elizabeth, who, 
it is said, had eighty wigs, was seen sometimes in black hair, sometimes 
in red : the Queen of Scots wore successively black, yellow, and auburn 
hair. But yellow was most in favor ; and many a little street blonde was 
decoyed aside and shorn of her locks, to furnish a periwig for some fine 
lady. The linen ruff, worn in triple folds about the neck, was of *^pre- 



THE CIVILIZATION. 165 

posterous amplitude and terrible stiffness."! The long, rigid bodice, 
descending almost to the knees, was crossed and recrossed with lacers ; 
and about and below it stretched the farthingale, standing out like a 
large balloon. Knitted and clocked black-silk stockings — a new im- 
portation from France — were worn with high-heeled shoes, or with 
white, green, or yellow slippers. Perfumed and embroidered gloves ; 
a gold-handled fan, finished with ostrich or peacock feathers ; a small 
looking-glass hanging from the girdle ; a black- velvet mask ; and long 
loops of pearls about the neck, — completed the belle's costume. 

At Table all wore their hats, as they did also in church or at the 
theater. The noon dinner was the formal meal of the day, and was 
characterized by stately decorum. It was " served to the Virgin Queen 
as if it were an act of worship, amid kneeling pages, guards, and ladies, 
and to the sound of trumpets and kettledrums." The nobles followed 
the royal example and kept up princely style. The old ceremonious 
custom of washing hands was still observed ; perfumed water was used, 
and the ewer, basin, and hand-towel were ostentatiously employed. The 
guests were ushered into the hall, and seated at the long table accord- 
ing to their rank ; the conspicuous salt-cellar — an article which super- 
stition decreed should always be the first one placed on the table — still 
separated the honored from the inferior guests. The- favorite dishes 
were a boar's head wreathed with rosemary, and sucking-pigs which 
had been fed on dates and muscadine. Fruit-jellies and preserves were 
delicacies recently introduced. Etiquette pervaded everything, even to 
the important display of plate on the dresser : thus, a prince of royal 
blood had five steps or shelves to his cupboard ; a duke, four ; a lesser 
noble, three ; a knight-banneret, two ; and a simple gentleman, one. 
Forks were still unknown, but they were brought from Italy early in 
the 17th century. Bread and meats were presented on the point of a 
knife, the food being conveyed to the mouth by the left hand. After 
dinner the guests retired to the withdrawing-room, or to the garden- 
house, for the banquet. Here choice wines, pastry, and sweetmeats 
were served, and a ''marchpane" (a little sugar-and-almond castle) 
was merrily battered to pieces with sugarplums. Music, mummery, 
and masquerading enlivened the feast. 

With common people, ale, spiced and prepared in various forms, was 
the popular drink ; and the ale-houses of the day, which were frequented 
too often by women, were centers of vice and dissipation. Tea and coffee 
were yet unknown, and were not introduced till the next century. 2 

1 starch, then new in England, was called by Philip Stubbe " the devil's liquor with 
which tlie women smeare and starche their neckerchiefs." Its inventress perished on 
the scaffold, wearing one of her own stiff collars, after which they went out of fashion. 

2 The Portuguese imported some tea from China in the 16th century, but it was 
over sixty years after the death of Elizabeth before the munificent gift of two pounds 



166 



THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 



Domestic Manners were stern and formal. Sons, even in mature 
life, stood silent and uncovered in their father's presence, and daugh- 
ters knelt on a cushion until their mother had retired. The yard-long 
fan-handles served for whipping-rods, and discipline was enforced so 
promptly and severely that grown-up men and women often trembled 
at the sight of their parents. Lady Jane Grey confided to Roger 
Ascham that her parents used " so sharply to taunt her, and to give her 
such pinches, nijys, and bobs " at the slightest offense, that she was in 
constant terror before them. At school the same principles prevailed, 
and the 16th-century schoolboy could well appreciate the classically 
recorded woes of the little Ancient Roman (Anc. Peo., p. 280). 

Street Life. — The Elizabethan city-madam beguiled the hours of 
her husband's absence at the mart, or exchange, by sitting with her 
daughters outside the street-door, under the successive projections of 
her tall, half-timber house, and gazing upon the sights of the dirty, 
narrow, crooked, unpaved, London highway. Here, while they regaled 
themselves with sweetmeats, or smoked the newly imported Indian 

weed, they watched the full- 
toileted gallant in his morn- 
ing lounge toward St. Paul's 
churchyard and the neigh- 
boring book-stalls, or his 
after-dinner stroll toward 
Blackfriars Theater, where, 
at three o'clock or at the 
floating of the play-house 
flag, was to be acted the 
newest comedy of a rising 
young play-writer,— one Wil- 
liam Shakspere. Occasion- 
ally a roystering party of 
roughs, armed with wooden 
spears and shields, would be 
seen hurrying to the Thames 
for a boat-joust, bawling the 
while to one another their braggart threats of a good wetting in the 
coming clash of boats ; or one of the new-fashioned, carved, canopied, 
and curtained wagons, called coaches, would go jolting along, having 
neither springs nor windows, but with wide-open sides which offered 
unobstructed view of the painted and bewigged court-ladies who filled 
it ; or smiles, and bows, and the throwing of kisses, would mark the 

of tea, from the English East India Company to Catharine, queen of Cliarles II., 
heralded in England a new national beverage. Tea was soon afterwards sold at from 
six to ten guineas per pound The tirst coflfee-house was opened in 1651. 




SHAKSPEUE'S GLOBE lIlEATKli. 



THE CIVILIZATION, 



167 




passing of a friend with her retinue of flat-capped, blue-gowned, white 
stockinged 'prentices, — a comparatively new class, whose street clubs 
were destined thenceforth to figure in nearly every London riot, and 
who were finally to be the conquerors at Marston Moor and Naseby ; or 
a group of ]iigh-born ladies, out for a frolic, would cross the distant 
bridge on their way to Southwark bear-garden, where for threepence 
they could enjoy the roars and flounderings of a chained and blinded 
bear worried by English bulldogs. Now her ears caught the sound of 
angry voices from the 

neighboring ale-house, v^V^/ >A\ /^/ 

where a party of wo- "^ 

men were drinking and 
gambling ; and now 
a poor old withered 
dame rushed swiftly 
by, hotly pursued by a 
shouting crowd, armed 
with long pins to prick 
''the Avitch" and see 
if blood would follow, 
or, gi'asping at her hair, 
to tear out a handful 
to burn for a counter- 
charm. Anon, a poor 

fellow, with the blood flowing from his freshly cropped ears, came stag- 
gering home from a public flogging, — it was his second punishment 
for vagrancy, and lucky he to escape being branded with a V, and sold 
as a slave to his informer. There was, indeed, no end of '^ rogues, 
vagabonds, and sturdy beggars," 1 singly or in crowds, who passed and 
repassed from morning till night ; and many a bloody brawl, robbery, 
and even murder, this 16th-century Londoner could witness from her 
own street-door. At night the narrow city-lanes swarmed with thieves, 
who skillfully dodged the rays of the flaring cresset borne by the 
marching watch. Fortunately early hours were fashionable, and nine 
o'clock saw the bulk of society-folk within their own homes. 

Along the wretched country roads, most travel was on horseback, the 
ladies riding on a pillion behind a servant. There was no regular stage 
communication. On the great road to Scotland were some royal post 
stations, but ordinary letters were sent by chance merchants or by a 
special courier. 

Holiday Life. — Sunday was the great day for all diversions, from 

1 It is curious to find included under this head the scholars of Oxford and Cam- 
bridge Universities, who were expressly " forbidden to beg except they liad the 
authority of the chancellor" (compare A German Traveling Student, p. 170). 



THE HACK. 
(A Mode of Punishment in the ICth Century.) 



168 



THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 




LONDON WATCHMEN (16TH CENTUUY) 



cock-fighting to theater-go- 
ing. Numerous church fes- 
tivals gave every working- 
man a round of relaxation. 
Christmas-time, especially, 
was one long saturnalia, 
from All-hallow Eve to the 
Feast of the Purification. 
What mummerings and mas- 
queradings,what pipings and 
drummings, what jingling of 
bells and shouting of songs, 
what flaimting of plumes 
and mad whirling of ker- 
chiefs around all England! 
Through every borough and 
village, a motley, grotesque- 
ly masked troop of revelers, 
armed with bells, drums, and 
squeaking fifes, and mounted 
on hobby-horses or great pasteboard dragons, followed its chosen 
''Lord of Misrule" wherever his riotous humor led; even into the 
churches, where the service was abruptly dropped, and the congrega- 
tion clambered upon the high-backed seats, to see the wild pranks of 
the licensed merry-crew ; even into the churchyards, where, among the 
clustering graves, they broached and drank barrels of strong, coarse ale. 
There was gentler but no less hearty cheer by the home firesides, 
where the huge yule-log on Christmas eve, and the rosemary-garnished 
boar's head at Christmas dinner, were each brought in with joyous 
ceremonies. Servants and children joined in the season's universal 
license ; every house resounded with romping games, and every street 
re-echoed Christmas carols. 

And who could resist May-day? The tall, garlanded May-pole, drawn 
in by flower-wreathed oxen ; the jollity of the ceaseless dance about its 
fluttering ribands ; the by-play of Robin Hood and Friar Tuck ; the 
jingling Morris-dancers ; the trippings of the milk-maids with their 
crowns of silver tankards ; and the ubiquitous, rollicking hobby-horse 
and dragon, — made the livelong day one burst of happy frolic. 



SCENES IN GERMAN LIFE. 

Scene I. — The Home of the Land- Junker, or country knight, is a 
gloomy, dirty, and comfortless castle. Placed on a barren height, ex- 
posed to winter blast and summer sun ; destitute of pure water, though 



THE CIVILIZATION. 169 

surrounded by stagnant ditches ; lighted by dim panes in tiny windows ; 
crowded with inmates (the junker's younger brothers and cousins, 
with their families, numberless servants, men-at-arms, and laborers) ; 
pestered in summer by noisome smells and insect hordes, that rise from 
steaming pools and filth-heaps in the foul courtyard ; cold and dreary 
in winter, despite the huge tiled stoves fed by forest logs, and so broad 
that beds can be made upon them ; scantily furnished, but always 
well stocked with weapons kept bright by constant use against the 
raids of roving marauders and quarrelsome neighbors, — the junker's 
dwelling is still more a fortress than a home. It has its prisons, and 
they are not unused. In this one, perhaps, pines and frets a burgher- 
merchant, waylaid and robbed upon the road and now held for his 
ransom, who wearily eats his dole of black bread while the lady of the 
castle, singing cheerfully, makes coats and mantles of the fine cloth 
stolen from his pack ; in that one sulks a peasant, sore with the stripes 
received for crossing the path of the master's chase, and in imagination 
sharpening his next arrow for the master's heart. Jostling one another 
over the open kitchen fire, the servants of the various households push 
and crowd and wrangle ; while from the courtyard comes the sound of 
playing children, barking dogs, and cackling geese. 

The junker's frau is general housekeeper, head-cook, and family 
doctor ; and she has learned by frequent experience how to manage 
a tipsy husband and his rude guests, who amuse themselves in her 
presence by making coarse jokes and by blackening the faces of her 
domestics. She is proud of her family brocades and gold heirlooms, 
and looks wrathfully on the costly furs, velvets, and pearls worn without 
right — as she thinks — by the upstart wives of rich city burgesses. 

The junker's sons grow up with horses, dogs, and servants. They 
study a little Latin at the village school, watch the poultry for their 
mother, and scour the woods for wild pears and mushrooms to be dried 
for winter use. Occasionally a boy goes through the course at the 
university; but it is oftener the son of a shoemaker or a village 
pastor, than of a nobleman, who rises to distinction. Now and then a 
strolling ballad-singer delights the junker's ear with a choice bit of 
scandal that he has been hired to propagate far and wide in satirical 
verse ; or an itinerant peddler brings the little irregularly published 
news-sheet, with its startling accounts of maidens possessed with 
demons, the latest astrological prediction, and the strange doings of 
Dr. Martin Luther. Otherwise the master hunts, quarrels, feasts, and 
carouses. Ruined estates, heavy debts, and prolonged lawsuits dis- 
turb his few sober hours. He strives to bolster up his fortunes by 
building toll-bridges (even where there is no river), and by keeping 
such vrretched roads that the traveling merchant's wagons unavoidably 
upset, when he, as lord of the manor, claims the scattered goods. 



170 THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 

Scene II. — TJie Home of tlie Rich Patrician is luxurious. He is the 
money-owner of the realm. A merchant-prince, he traffics with Italy 
and the Levant, buys a whole year's harvest from the King of Portugal, 
has invoices from both the Indies, and takes personal journeys to Cal- 
cutta. He is statesman, soldier, and art-patron. For him are painted 
Albert Diirer's most elaborate pictures, and in his valuable library are 
found the choicest books, fresh from the new art of printing. He 
educates his sons in Italy, and inspires his daughters with a love for 
learning. He shapes the German policy of imperial cities, and sup- 
plies emperor and princes with gold fi'om his strong-banded coffers. 
When, in 1575, Herr Marcus Fugger entertains at dinner a wandering 
Silesian prince, that potentate's chamberlain is dazed by the costly 
display, which he thus notes down in his journal : ''Such a banquet I 
never beheld. The repast was spread in a hall with more gold than 
color ; the marble floor was smooth as ice ; the sideboard, placed the 
whole length of the hall, was set out with drinking-vessels and rare 
Venetian glasses ; there was the value of more than a ton of gold. 
Herr Fugger gave to his Princely Highness for a drinking-eup an 
artistically formed ship of the most beautiful Venetian glass. He took 
his Princely Highness through the prodigious great house to a turret, 
where he showed him a treasure of chains, jewels, and precious stones, 
besides curious coins, and pieces of gold as large as my head. After- 
ward he opened a chest full of ducats and crowns up to the brim. The 
turret itself was paved halfway down from the top with gold thalers." 
— Diary of Hans Von Scliweinichen. 

Scene III. — A German Traveling Student {16th century). — The Ger- 
man boy who wished to become a scholar had often a weary road to 
plod. As Scliiitz, or yoimger student, he was always the fag of some 
Bacchant, or older comrade, for whom he was forced to perform the most 
menial offices, — his only consolation being that the bacchant, should he 
ever enter a university, would be equally humiliated by the students 
whose circle he would join. Thousands of bacchanten and schiitzen 
wandered over Germany, sipping like bees, first at one school, then at 
another ; every^'here begging their way under an organized system, 
which protected older resident students from the greedy zeal of new 
arrivals. The autobiography of Thomas Platter, who began life as a 
Swiss shepherd-boy and ended it as a famous Basle schoolmaster, gives 
us some curious details of this scholastic vagrancy. At nine years of 
age he was sent to the village priest, of whom he ''learned to sing a 
little of the salve and to beg for eggs, besides being cruelly beaten and 
ofttimes dragged by the ears out of the house." He soon joined his 
wandering cousin, Paulus, who proved even a harder master than the 
priest. "There were eight of us traveling together, three of whom 
were schiitzen, I being the youngest. When I could not keep up well, 



THE CIVILIZATION. 171 

Paulus came iDehind me with a rod and switched me on my bare legs, 
for I had no stockings and bad shoes." The little schiitzen had to beg 
or steal enough to support their seniors, though they were never allowed 
to sit at table with them, and were often sent supperless to their bed of 
foul straw in the stable, while the baechanten dined and slept in the 
inn. The party stopped at Nuremberg, then at Dresden, and thence 
journeyed to Breslau, " suffering much from hunger on the road, eating 
nothing for days but raw onions and salt, or roasted acorns and crabs. 
We slept in the open air, for no one would take us in, and often they 
set the dogs upon us." At Breslau there were seven parishes, each with 
its separate school supported by alms, no schiitz being allowed to beg 
outside of his own parish. Here also was a hospital for the students, 
and a specified sum provided by the town for the sick. At the schools 
the baechanten had small rooms with straw beds, but the schiitzen lay 
on the hearth in winter, and in summer slept on heaps of grass in the 
churchyard. " When it rained we ran into the school, and if there was 
a storm we chanted the responsoria and other things almost all night 
with the succentor." There was such "excellent begging" at Breslau 
that the party fell ill from over-eating. The little ones were sometimes 
" treated at the beer-houses to strong Polish peasant beer, and got so 
drunk we could not find our way home." " In the school, nine bachelors 
always read together at the same hour in one room, for there were no 
printed Greek books in the country at that time. The preceptor alone 
had a printed Terence ; what was read had first to be dictated, then 
parsed and construed, and lastly explained ; so that the baechanten, 
when they went away, carried with them large sheets of writing." As 
to the schiitzen, the begging absorbed most of their time. Soon the 
wandering fever came on again, and the party tramped back to Dresden 
and then to Ulm, falling meantime into great want. " Often I was so 
hungry that I drove the dogs in the streets away from their bones, and 
gnawed them." The baechanten now became so cruel and despotic that 
Thomas ran away, weeping bitterly that no one cared for him. " It was 
cold, and I had neither cap nor shoes, only torn stockings and a scanty 
jacket." Paulus, having no thought of giving up so good a provider, 
followed him hither and thither to the great fright and distress of the 
poor little schiitz, who had many a narrow escape from the vengeance 
of his pursuer. At last he reached his beloved Switzerland, which, he 
pathetically records, ''made me so happy I thought I was in heaven." 
At Zurich he offered his begging services to some baechanten in return 
for their teaching, but "learned no more with them than with the 
others." At Strasburg he had no better success, but at Schlettstadt he 
found ''the first school in which things went on well." It was the year 
of the Diet of Worms, and Thomas was now eighteen years old. He 
had been a nominal pupil for nine years, but could not yet read. His 



172 THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 

hard life had left its trace, and though, after the custom of the time, 
his name was formally Latinized into Platterus, his preceptor con- 
temptuously added : '' Poof ! what a measly schiitz to have such a fine 
name ! " Scholars soon so increased in this town that there was not 
support for all, and Thomas tried another village, "where there was a 
tolerably good school and more food ; but we were obliged to be so 
constantly in church that we lost all our time." At last he returned 
to Zurich, and entered under " a good and learned but severe school- 
master. I sat down in a corner near his chair, and said to myself, 'In 
this corner will I study or die.' I got on well with Father Myconius : 
he read Terence to us, and we had to conjugate and decline every word 
of a play. It often happened that my jacket was wet and my eyes 
almost blind with fear, and yet he never gave me a blow, save once on 
my cheek." Thomas's trials and struggles continued for some years 
longer. He learned rope-making as a means of support, and used to 
fasten the separate sheets of his Greek Plautus (a precious gift from 
a Basle printer) to the rope, that he might read while working. He 
studied much at night, and in time rose to be a corrector of the press, 
then citizen and printer, and finally rector of the Latin School at 
Basle. 

SUMMARY. 

The sixteenth was the century of Charles V., Francis I., Henry 
VIII., Pope Leo X., Loyola, Luther, Calvin, Philip 11. , William the 
Silent, Catharine de' Medici, Henry IV., Queen Elizabeth, Mary 
Stuart, Shakspere, Michael Angelo, Raphael, Correggio, and Coperni- 
cus. It saw the battle of Pa via ; the conquest of Mexico and Peru ; 
the Reformation in Germany ; the founding of the order of Jesuits ; 
the abdication of Charles V. ; the battle of Lepanto ; the Massacre of 
St. Bartholomew ; the Union of Utrecht ; the triumph of the Beggars ; 
the death of Mary Stuart ; the defeat of the Spanish Armada ; the bat- 
tle of Ivry ; and the Edict of Nantes. 

READING REFERENCES. 

The General Modern Histories on p. 123, and Special Histories of England, France, 
Germany, etc., on p.ll2.—D' AuMgne" s Reformation.— Rank&s History of the Popes. 
—Robertson's Life of Charles V.— Motley's Rise of the Dutch Republic, United Nether- 
lands, and John of Barneveld.— Spalding's History of the Protestant Reformation 
(Catholic view).—Rressense's Early Years of Christianity.— Seebohm's Era of Protes- 
tant Revolution {Epochs of History Series).— Fisher's Reformation.— Hdusser's Period 
of the Reformation.— Hiibner's Life of Sixtus V.—Audi7i's Life of Luther (Catholic 
view).—Froude's Short Studies (Erasmus and Luther).— Smiles' s Hie Huguenots.— 
Hanna's Wars of the Huguenots.— Freer' s Histories of Henry III., and Maria de' 
Medici.— Lingard's History of England (Era of the Reformation, Catholic vieiv).- 
Macaulay's Ivry (poem).— James's Henry of Guise, and Huguenots (fiction).- Dutnas's 



CONTEMPORARY SOVEREIGNS. 



173 



Forty -five Guardsmen (flction).—Ebers' s Burgomaster's Wife (Siege of Ley den).— 
3£iss Yonge's Unknoivn to History (Romance illustrating Mary Stuart's times).— Mrs. 
Charles's Schonberg-Cotta Family. 



CHRONOLOGY. 



A. D. 
Henry VIII., Kinf? of England ...1509-47 

Francis I., King of France 1515-47 

LiUthcr publislies liis theses 1517 

Charles V., Emperor of Germany.. 1520-56 

Cortes takes Mexico 1521 

Battle of Pavia 1525 

Bourbon sacks Rome 1527 

Reformers called Protestants 1529 

Pizarro conquers Peru 1533 

Order of Jesuits founded by Loyola. 1534 
Council of Trent 1545 



A. D. 

Treaty of Passau 1552 

Abdication of Cliarles V 1556 

Elizabeth, Queen of England... 1558-1603 

Battle of Lepanto 1571 

Massacre of St. Bartholomew 1572 

Siege of Leyden 1574 

Mary Queen of Scots beheaded 1587 

Defeat of the Spanish A rmada 1588 

Henry IV., King of France 1589 

Battle of Ivry 1590 

Edict of Nantes 1598 



CONTEMPORARY SOVEREIGNS. 



ENGLAND. 

Henry VIII.... 1509 

Edward VI .... 1547 

Mary 15.53 

Elizabeth 1558 



FRANCE. 

Louis XII 1498 

Francis 1 1515 

Henry II 1547 

Francis II 1559 

Cliarles IX 1560 

Henry III 1574 

Henry IV 1589 



GERMANY. 

Maximilian I.. 1493 
Charles V 1520 



Ferdinand I.... 1556 
Maximilian II. 1564 
Rudolph II 1576 



SPAIN. 

Ferdinand and 

Isabella 1479 

Charles 1 1516 

Philip II 1556 

Pliilip III 1598 




JJKINGING IN THE YULE LOG AT CHKISTMAg. 



174 THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 

THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 

I. THE THIRTY-YEARS' WAR. 

The Causes of this war were mainly : 1. The smoldering 
religious hatred of half a century, kindled afresh by the 
Bohemian troubles ; 2. The church lands which the Protes- 
tants had seized and the Cathohc princes sought to reclaim ; 
3. The emperor Ferdinand's determination, backed by Spain, 
to subjugate Germany to his faith and house. 

Opening of the "War. — The Bohemians, enraged by 
Ferdinand's intolerance (p. 138), revolted, threw two of the 
royal councilors out of a window of the palace at Prague, 
and chose as king the elector-palatine Frederick, son-in-law 
of James I. of England. War ensued, — the old Hussite strug- 
gle over again. But Frederick's army was defeated near 
Prague in its first battle, and the '' Winter King," as he was 
called, for he reigned only one winter, instead of gaining a 
kingdom, in the end lost his Palatinate, and died in poverty 
and exile. 1 Meanwhile Ferdinand was chosen emperor. 

Spread T)f the War. — As the seat of the war passed 
from* Bohemia into the Palatinate, the other German states, 
in spite of their singular indifference and jealousy, became 
involved in the struggle. Finally Christian IV. of Den- 
mark, who, as Duke of Holstein, was a prince of the empire, 

Geographical Questions.— Liocate Prague; Magdeburg; Leipsic ; Liitzeu ; 
Rocroi ; Freiburg ; Nordlingen ; Lens ; Rastadt ; Strasburg.— Point out Bobeiuia ; 
Westphalia ; Saxony ; Pomerania ; The Palatinate ; Braudenbuig ; Alsace ; Brus- 
sels ; Luxemburg : Nimeguen ; Fleurus ; Steinkirk ; Neerwinden ; Blenheim ; 
Ramillies ; Oudenarde ; Malplaquet ; Dunkirk ; Rochelle ; Nantes ; Utrecht.— Dover ; 
Marston Moor; Naseby ; Dunbar; Worcester. 

1 Little did his wife Elizabeth dream, as she wandered among foreign courts beg- 
ging shelter for herself and cliildren, that her grandson would sit on the English 
throne. 



1627.] 



THE THIRTY-YEARS^ WAR. 



175 



espoused Frederick's cause. In this crisis, Comit WaJlenstein 
volunteered to raise an army for the emperor, and support 
it from the hostile territory. The magic of his name and 
the hope of plunder drew adventurers from all sides. With 



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TO ILLUSTRATE 

THE 30 YEARS' WAR 
and THE 7 YEARS' WAR. 



100,000 men he invaded Denmark. Christian was forced 
to flee to his islands, and finally to sue for peace (1629). 
Ferdinand's Triumph now appeared complete, Ger* 



176 THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. [1629. 

many lay helpless at his feet. The dream of Charles V. — an 
Austrian monarch, al^solute, like a French or a Spanish 
king — seemed about to be realized. Ferdinand ventured 
to force the Protestants to restore the church lands. But 
Wallenstein's mercenaries had become as obnoxious to the 
Catholics as to the Protestants, and Ferdinand was induced 
to dismiss him just at the moment when, as the event 
proved, he most needed his services : for at this juncture 

Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden, landed with a 
small army on the Baltic coast. A pious, prudent, honest, 
resolute, generous man ; maintaining strict discipline among 
his soldiers, who were devoted to their leader; holding 
prayers in camp twice a day ; sharing every hardship with 
the meanest priv^ate, and every danger with the bravest ; treat- 
ing the enemy with humanity, respecting the rights of the 
inhabitants of the country, and paying for the food he took ; 
improving the art of war by breaking the heavy masses of 
the army into small battalions, by throwing off their armor, 
by reducing the weight of their weapons, and by mingling 
the cavalry, pikemen, artillery, and musketeers so as to sup- 
port one another in battle, — such was the man who now 
appeared as the Protestant champion. In Vienna they 
laughed at the '^ Snow King," as they called him, and said 
he would melt under a southern sun. But by the next sum- 
mer he had taken eighty towns and fortresses. France, then 
ruled by Richelieu (p. 181), made a treaty promising him 
money to pay his army ; and, though England did not join 
him, thousands of English and Scotch rallied around the 
banner of the Lion of the North. 

Tilhj, the best imperial general after Wallenstein, now laid 
siege to Magdeburg (1631). Gustavus hastened to its relief. 
But, while he was negotiating leave to cross the Protestant 
states of Saxony and Brandenburg, Magdeburg was taken by 



1631.] THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 177 

storm. For three days Tilly's bandit soldiers robbed and 
murdered throughout the doomed city. From that time 
this hero of thirty-six battles never won another field. On 
the plain of Leijjsic, Gustavus captured Tilly's guns, turned 
them upon him, and drove his army into headlong flight. 
The victor, falling on his knees amid the dead and dying, 
gave thanks to God for his success. The next year, at the 
crossing of the Lech, Tilly was mortally wounded. 

Count Wallenstein^ was now recalled, the humbled em- 
peror giving him absolute power over his army. He soon 
gathered a force of men, who knew no trade but arms, and 
no principle but plunder. After months of maneuvering, 
dm-ing which these skillful generals sought to take each 
other at a disadvantage, Gustavus, learning that Wallenstein 
had sent his best cavahy-officer, Pappenheim, with ten thou- 
sand men, into Westphalia, attacked the imperial forces at 

Liitzen, near Leipsic (1G32). After prayer, his army sang 
Luther's hymn, " God is a strong tower," when he himself 
led the advance. Three times that day the hard-fought field 
was lost and won. At last Gustavus, while rallying his 
troops, was shot. The riderless horse, galloping mldly down 
the line, spread the news. But the Swedes, undismayed, 
fought under Bernard of Weimar more desperately than 
ever. Pappenheim, who had been hastily recalled, came 
up only in time to meet their fierce charge, and to die at 
the head of his dragoons. Night put an end to the carnage. 



1 "Wallenstein lived on his princely estates with regal pomp. He was served by 
nobles ; sixty high-born pages did his bidding, and sixty life-guards watched in his 
ante-chamber. His horses ate from mangers of polished steel, and their stalls were 
decorated with paintings. When he traveled, his suite filled sixty carriages; and his 
baggage, one hundred wagons. The silence of death brooded around him. He so 
dreaded noise that the streets leading to his palace in Prague weie closed by chains, 
lest the sound of carriage-wheels should reach his ear. He believed in astrology, and 
that the stars foretold him a brilliant destiny. His men thought liim to be in league 
with spirits, and lience invulnerable in battle. Like Till}', he wore in his hat a blood- 
red feather, and it is said that his usual dress was scarlet. 



178 



THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 



[1632. 



Wallen stein crept off in the 
dark, leaving his colors and 
cannon behind. Gustavus 
had fallen, like Eparainon- 
das, in the hour of victory. 




BEFOKE THE BATTLE OF LUTZEN. 

After the Death of Gustavus, the war had little in- 
terest. As the Swedish crown fell to Christina, a little girl 
of six years, the direction of military affau^s was given to the 
chancellor Oxenstiern, an able statesman ; under him were 
Bernard, Duke of Weimar, the Generals Horn and Baner, 
and later the brilliant Torstenson. Ferdinand, suspecting 
Wallenstein's fidelity, caused his assassination. At JSforcl- 
lingen (1634) the Swedes met their first great defeat, and 
the next year most of the Protestant states of Germany 



1635-48.] THE THIRT Y-YEARS' WAR. 179 

made terms with the emperor. Still for thirteen years 
longer the war dragged on. 

The Character of the contest had now entirely changed. 
It was no longer a struggle for the supremacy of Catholic or 
Protestant. The progress of the war had destroyed the feel- 
ings with which it had commenced. France had openly 
taken the field against Spain and Austria. Ferdinand died, 
and his son, Ferdinand III., came to the throne ; Richelieu 
and Louis XIII. died, but Louis XIY. and his minister, 
Mazarin, continued the former policy. Both French and 
Swedes strove to get lands in Germany, and Ferdinand 
struggled to save as much as possible from their grasping 
hands. The contending armies — composed of the offscour- 
ings of all Europe — surged to and fro, leaving behind them 
a broad track of ruin. The great French generals, Conde 
and Turenne, masters of a new art of war, by the victo- 
ries of Eocroi, Freiburg,^ Wordlingen, and Lens, assured the 
power of France. Maximihan of Bavaria made an heroic 
stand for the emperor ; but at last, Bavaria being overrun, 
Bohemia invaded, a part of Prague taken,^ and Vienna itself 
threatened, Ferdinand was forced to sign the 

Peace of Westphalia (1648).— This treaty— the basis 
of our modern map of Europe — brought to an end the reli- 
gious wars of the Continent. It recognized the independ- 
ence of Holland and Switzerland ; granted reUgious freedom 
to the Protestant states of Germany- and gave Alsace to 
France, and a part of Pomerania to Sweden. 

The Effect of the Thirty- Years' War upon Germany is not yet 
effaced. ''The whole land," says Carlyle, ''had been tortured, torn to 
pieces, wrecked, and brayed as in a mortar." Two thirds of the popu- 
lation had disappeared. Famine, pestilence, and the sword had eon- 
verted vast tracts into a wilderness. Whole villages stood empty save 

1 According to tradition, Cond6, in tliis battle, threw his marshal's baton into the 
enemy's trenches, and then recovered it, sword in liand. 

? Thus the Thirty- Years' War, which began at Prague, ended at Prague. 



180 



THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 



[1610. 



for the famished dogs that prowled around the deserted houses. All 
idea of nationality was lost ; the Holy Roman Empire was practically at 
an end, and the name German emperor was henceforth merely an empty 
title of the Austrian rulers ; while between the Alps and the Baltic 
were three hundred petty states, each with its own court, coinage, and 
customs. Trade, literature, and manufactures were paralyzed. French 
manners and habits were servilely imitated, and each little court sought 
to reproduce in miniature the pomp of Versailles. Henceforth, until 
almost our own times, the empire has no history, and that of the differ- 
ent states is a dreary chapter indeed. "From the Peace of Westphalia 
to the French Revolution," says Bryce, "it would be hard to find a sin- 
gle grand character, a single noble enterprise, a single sacrifice to public 
interests, or a single instance where the welfare of the nation was pre- 
ferred to the selfish passion of the prince. When we ask for an account 
of the political life of Germany in the 18th century, we hear nothing but 
the scandals of buzzing courts and the wrangling of diplomatists at 
never-ending congresses." Even Lessing, the great German author, 
wrote, " Of the love of country, I have no conception ; it appears to me, 
at best, a heroic weakness which I am right glad to be without." 



II. FRANCE IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 

1. THE AGE OF RICHELIEU (1622-12). 

Louis XIII. (1610-43).— The dagger of Ravaillac gave 

the crown to Henry's son, 
a boy of nine years. The 
queen-mother, Maria de' 
Medici, the regent, squan- 
dered upon her favorites 
the treasures saved by the 
frugal Sully, who now re- 
tired in disgrace. The 
nobles, regaining power, 
levied taxes and coined 
money, as in feudal times ; 
while the Huguenots — 
forming an independent 
state within the state — garrisoned fortresses, hired soldiers, 
and held political assemblies. All was chaos until Louis, 
having come of age, caUed a new man to his councils. 




LOUIS xni. 



1622.] 



FRANCE — THE AGE OF RICHELIEU. 



181 



Cardinal de Richelieu.^ — Henceforth Louis was tlio 
second man in France, but the first in Europe. The king 
cowered before the 
genius of his minis- 
ter, whom he hated 
and yet obeyed. 
Richelieu had three 
objects : to destroy 
the Huguenots as a 
party, to subdue the 
nobles, and to hum- 
ble Austria. 

1. By building a 
stone mole across 
the entrance to the 
harbor of RocheUe 
and shutting out 

the English fleet, Richeheu reduced that Huguenot strong- 
hold. The other Calvinist towns then submitting, he gen- 
erously granted the reformers freedom of worship. 

2. By destroying the feudal castles, and by attracting the 
nobles to Paris, where they became absorbed in the luxuries 
and frivohties of the court, he weakened their provincial 
power. The rebellious aristocracy hated the cardinal, and 
formed conspiracy after conspiracy against him. But he 
detected each plot, and punished its authors with merciless 
severity. The nobility crushed. Parliament — the highest 




CAKDI.NAL KICIIKLIEU. 



1 " This extraordinary man," says Miss Edwards in her charming History of 
France, " has been, not inaptly, compared with his predecessor, Wolsey of England. 
Like him, he was a prelate, a minister, a consummate politician, and a master of the 
arts of intrigue. He gave his whole attention and all his vast abilities to afifairs of 
state, was prodigal of display, and entertained projects of the most towering ambi- 
tion. He added to his ministerial and priestly dignities the emoluments and honors 
of the profession of arms; assumed the dress and title of generalissimo of the French 
army ; and wore alternately the helmet of the warrior and the scarlet hat of the 
cardinal." 



182 



THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 



[1643. 



court of law — was forced to register the royal edicts with- 
out examination. The monarchy was at last absolute, 

3. By supporting the Protestants during the Thirty- 
Years' War, Richelieu weakened the House of Austria in 
Germany and Spain, and so made France the head of the 
European States-System. 

Just at the hour of his triumph, Richeheu died. Louis, 
whose life had been so closely linked to that of his famous 
minister, survived him only six months. 

2. THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV. (1643-1715). 



Louis XIV. was only five years old at his father's death. 
Anne of Austria, the queen-mother, became regent, and 

Mazarin was appointed 
prime-minister: The fruits 
of Richelieu's foreign policy 
were rapidly gathered by the 
two renowned generals, — 
Conde and Turenne, — who 
now commanded the French 
armies. The battles of Ro- 
croi,^ Freiburg, Nordlingen, 
and Lens humiliated Aus- 
tria, and paved the way to 
the Peace of Westphalia. 
Spain, however, continued 




CAKULNAL MAZAUIN. 



^ The pupil may be aiiled in remembering these important battles if he associate 
the four names with Conde and Turenne (tliough Turenne fought only at Freiburg 
and Nordlingen) : tlie names frequently repeated togetlier will form a chain of associ- 
ation. The same remark liolds true with regard to Luxemburg's three battles (p. 186), 
and Marlborough's four battles (p. 187). On the field of Rocroi the French found the 
remains of the Castilian infantry, first formed by Gonsalvo (p. 125), lying dead in battle- 
line, and at the head the commander, Comte de Fuentes, hero of twenty battles, ex- 
piring in an arm-chair in which, on account of his feebleness, he had been borne to the 
front. " Were I not victor," said the young Duke d'Enghein (Cond^), " I should wish 
thus to die." 



1659.] 



FRANCE— THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV. 



183 



the wari ^^jtil, by the Peace of the Pyrenees (1659), she 
yielded Artois and Roussillon to Louis. From this time, 
France held that place among European nations which Spain 
had so long occupied. Upon the death of Mazarin (1661), 

Louis assumed the Government. Henceforth, for 
over half a century, he was sole master in France. He 
became his own prime-minister, and, though only twenty- 
three years old, by his dili- 
gence soon acquired the de- 
tails of public affairs. He 
selected his assistants with 
rare wisdom. Colbert, the 
new finance minister, was 
another Sully, by economy 
and system increasing the 
revenues, while he encour- 
aged agriculture, manufac- 
tures, and commerce. Lou- 
vois, the war minister, or- 
ganized and equipped the 
army, making it the terror of 
Europe. Never had France 
been so powerful. One hun- 
dred fortresses, monuments 
of the skill of Vauban, — the 
greatest engineer of his day, 
— covered the frontier; one 




1 The cost of this war and the luxury of the court made the taxes very oneroua. 
Filially Parliament refused to register tlie tariff, and a revolt broke out in wliich 
the Paiisian burghers and many nobles joined. Tliis rising is known as the Fronde, 
and the actors were called Frondeurs (slingers),— since the gamins of Paris, with their 
slings, were foremost in tlie outbreak. The struggle was a burlesque on civil war. 
Fun ran rampant. Everything was a Fronde ; and a sling, the universal tasliion. 
Tlie leaders on each side were the most fascinating women of France. In the end 
the Fronde was subdued. It was the last struggle of the nobles against despotism. 



184 THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. [1685. 

hundred ships of the hne lay in the magnificent harbors of 
Toulon, Brest, and Havi-e ; and an army of one hundred and 
forty thousand men, under Turenne, Conde, and Luxemburg, 
was ready to take the field at the word. The French people, 
weary of strife, willingly surrendered their political rights 
to this autocrat, who secured to them prosperity at home 
and dignity abroad. 

The Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. — By the 
advice of the cold and selfish Louvois and of Madame de 
Maintenon, — whom the king married after the death of 
Maria Theresa, — the Edict of Nantes (p. 148) was revoked 
(1685). The Protestant schools were closed, the Huguenot 
ministers expelled, and squadrons of cavahy quartered 
upon the suspected. Many citizens were imprisoned, exe- 
cuted, or sent to the galleys. Although emigration was for- 
bidden under severe penalties, two hundred thousand of the 
best artisans escaped to foreign lands, whither they carried 
arts and industries hitherto known only to France. 

Four Great Wars were waged by Louis to gratify his 
ambition, and extend the power of France. These were : 

1. War of Flanders (1667-68) ; ended by Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. 

2. War with Holland, and First Coalition (1672-79); closed by 
Treaty of Nimeguen. 

3. War of the Palatinate; Second Coalition (1688-97); concluded 
by Peace of Ryswick. 

4. War of the Spanish Succession (1701-14) ; terminated by treaties 
of Utrecht and Rastadt. 

1. War of Flanders. — On the death of his father-in-law, 
Philip IV. of Spain, Louis, in the name of Maria Theresa, 
invaded Flanders. But in the midst of a triumphant prog- 
ress he was checked by the " Triple Alliance^'' of England, 
Holland, and Sweden, and forced to make the Treaty of Aix- 
la-Chapelle, giving up most of his conquests. 



1672.] 



FRANCE — THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV. 



185 



2. War with Holland. — Louis was eager to revenge him- 
self upon the little republic that had so long been the ally 
of France, but now defended its old oppressor, Spain. So, 
having bri]:>ed England and Sweden to desert the alliance, 
he poured his troops 
into HoUand. With 
him were Conde, Tu- 
renne, Luxemburg, 
Louvois, and Vau- 
ban. Armed with 
the bayonet, then a 
new and terrible 
weapon, they swept 
all before them until 
within sight of Am- 
sterdam. But once 
again the courage of 
the Dutch rose high, 
as in the days of the 
Sea Beggars.^ "Bet- 
ter," said they, ''let 

the sea drown our farms than the French destroy our liber- 
ties." The sluices were opened, and the German Ocean, rush- 
ing in, saved the capital. William, Prince of Orange,^ chosen 
stadtholder in this emergency, aroused all Europe with dread 
of Louis's ambition. Soon the First Coalition of the empire, 
Spain, and Brandenburg (now Prussia) was formed against 
France. Louis, however, made head against all these foes, 
until, Europe longing for peace, he granted the Treaty of 

1 The Dutch even proposed, in case of reverse, to embark on their fleet, like the 
Athenians (Auc. Pen., p. 132), to abandon their country to this modern Xerxes, sail to 
their East Indian possessions, and found a new republic beyond the sea. 

2 The great-graudson of the Liberator of the Netherlands (p. 140), and afterward 
William III. of England (p. 205). 




186 THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. [1679. 

Nimeguen. This gave Franche Comte, and several fortresses 
and towns in Flanders, to France. Louis now considered 
himself the arbiter of Europe. He seized Strasburg in a 
time of profound peace; captured the fortress of Luxem- 
burg ; bombarded Algiers ; humiliated Genoa, forcing the 
Doge to come to. Paris and beg for mercy ; wrested Avignon 
from the Pope ; and, basest of all, secretly encouraged the 
Turks to invade Austria.^ 

3. The War of the Second Coalition^ was begun by its 
most memorable event, — the cruel devastation of the Palat- 
inate. Here the French army, unable to hold its conquests, 
destroyed over forty cities and villages. Houses were blown 
up ; vineyards and orchards cut down. Palaces, churches, 
and universities shared a common fate. Even the ceme- 
teries were profaned, and the ashes of the dead scattered 
to the wind. A cry of execration went up from the civilized 
world. William, Prince of Orange, then King of England 
(p. 205), became the leader of the '' Grand Alliance," to set 
bounds to Louis's power. 

At first Louis was triumphant. Luxemburg^ — the suc- 
cessor of Turenne and Conde — conquered the aUies under 
William, at Fleurus, SteinMrlc, and Neerivinden. But Wil- 
liam was greatest in defeat, and his stubborn valor held the 
French in check. Ere long, misfortunes gathered thickly 
about the Grand Monarch. Colbert, Louvois, and Luxem- 
burg died. Louis was finally forced to sign the Treaty of 

1 Vienna would have fallen Into the hands of the Infidel if it had not been for Jolm 
Sohieski, King of Poland, who routed the Turks under the walls of the city as Charles 
the Hammer put to flight the Saracen on the plains of Tours nearly ten centuries 
before. 

2 This war extended to North America, and is known in our history as King Wil- 
liam's War (Hist. U. S., p. 77). 

3 Luxemburg was styled the Upholsterer of Notre Dame, from the number of cap- 
tured flags he sent to be hung as trophies in that cathedral. "Would to God," said 
he on his death-bed, "that I could offer Him, instead of so many useless laurels, the 
merit of a cup of water given to the poor in His name." 



1697.] FRANCE — THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV. 187 

Bi/sivicJc, recognizing William as lawful sovereign of Eng- 
land, and surrendering most of his conquests, but retaining 
Strasburg, which Vauban's art had made the key of the 
Rhine. 

4. The War of the Spanish Succession'^ began the 18th 
century. Charles II. of Spain willed his crown to Philip of 
Anjou, son of the Dauphin ; Louis supported his grandson's 
claim. The emperor Leopold ^ was as nearly related to the 
Spanish family as was Louis : so he asserted the right of his 
second son, the Archduke Charles. The union of France 
and Spain under the House of Bourbon endangering the 
balance of power, a Third Coalition was formed. William, 
the soul of this league also, died at the beginning of the war. 
But his place in the field was more than filled by the brilliant 
Duke of Marlborough, and by Prince Eugene, who com- 
manded the imperial forces.^ Marlborough won the famous 
victories of Blenheim, RamilUes, Oudenarde, and Malplaquet ; 
Eugene drove the French headlong out of Italy, and threat- 
ened France. The long wars had exhausted the people; 
famine and disease ran riot through the land; and Louis 
humiliated himself in vain, begging the allies for peace. 

In the midst of disaster, however, he achieved his end by 
two unlooked-for events. The archduke became emperor, 
and the allies were as unwilling that Spain should be united 
to Austria as to France ; in England the Tories came into 
power, and recalled the dreaded Marlborough. The terrible 
struggle was ended by the treaties of Utrecht and Rastadt. 
Phihp was acknowledged King of Spain ; the Spanish posses- 

1 This struggle also involved the American colonies, and is known in our history 
as Queen Anne's War (Hist. U. S., p. 79). 

2 Known in history as the " Little man with the red stockings,'* 

3 Eugene was bred in France, and offered his sword to Louis, but was contemptu- 
ously rejected. Having cnlled the Grand Monarch "a stage-king for show and a 
chess-king for use," lie Iiad grievously offended tlie king, and now, having entered 
the emperor's service, lie became the bitterest enemy of France. 



188 THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. [1714. 

sions in Italy and in the Netherlands were ceded to the em- 
peror Charles VI. ; Newfoundland, Acadia, and Gibraltar — 
the key of the Mediterranean — were given to England. 

Death of Louis. — The Grand Monarch had carried out 
his plan, but he had impoverished France, mortgaged her 
revenues for years in advance, and destroyed her industries. 
Worn and disappointed, he closed his long reign of seventy- 
two years, having outlived his good fortune, and sacrificed 
his country to his false ideas of glory. 

III. ENGLAND UNDER THE STUARTS (1603-.714). 

The Stuart Rule covered the 17th century. It was 
the era of the English constitutional struggle. The charac- 
teristic feature was the conflict between the kings bent upon 
absolute power, and the Parhament contending for the rights 
of the people. 

TABLE OF THE STUART LINE (see Tudor Table, p. 149). 

JAMES I., son of Mary Queen of Scots (1603-25). 

I 



Charles 1. (1625-49). I 

I ELIZABETH, m. ELKCTOR- 



I I I Palatine. 

CHARLES II. (1660-85). JAMES II. (1685-89). SOPHIA, m. ELECT^K^OF ^^^ 

' George I. (1714). 

Mary II. (1G89-94). Anne (1702-14). 

James I. (1603-25). — Obstinate, conceited, pedantic, 
weak, mean-looking in person, ungainly in manners, slovenly 
in dress, led by unworthy favorites, given to wine, and so 
timorous as to shudder at a drawn sword, — the first Stuart 
king had few qualities of a ruler. ^ In strange contrast with 

1 Macaulay says tliat "James was made up of two men,— a witty, well-rearl scholar, 
who wrote, disputed, and harangued ; and a nervous, driveling idiot, wlio acted." 
Sully .styled him " The wisest fool in Europe." He was the author of several hooks, 
notably of one against the use of tohacco ; and under his patronage the still generally 
accepted translation of the Bible was made. 







f.^-r"^ .,^^'^., ->v^ 7,*^-^ 



190 



THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY, 



[1603. 



his undignified appearance, were liis royal pretensions. He 
believed in the " divine right " of the king, and in the " pas- 
sive obedience '* of the subject. While the Tudors had the 
tact to become absolute by making themselves the exponents 
of the national will, James ostentatiously opposed his per- 
sonal j)olicy to the popular desii'e. 




GUY FAWKES AND HIS COMPANIONS. 
(From a Print of the Time.) 



Gunpoivder Plot. — The Catholics naturally expected tol- 
eration from Mary's son, but, being persecuted more bitterly 
than ever, a few desperate ones resolved to blow up Parlia- 
ment on the day of its opening by the king (1605). They 
accordingly hired a cellar under the Houses of Parliament, 
where they hid thirty-six barrels of gunpowder beneath fag- 
ots of firewood. At the last moment a conspirator sent a 
note to a relation, warning him to keep away from Parlia- 
ment. The letter was shoT\Ti to the king, search made, and 
Guy Fawkes found waiting with lantern and slow-match to 



1605.J ENGLAND UNDER THE STUARTS. 191 

fire the train. This horrible plot bore bitter fruit, and 
stringent laws were passed against the "recusants," i. e., 
those who refused to attend church. 

Parliament and the King were in conflict throughout this 
reign ; the former contending for more liberty, the latter 
for more power. James would have gladly done without 
Parliament altogether, but he had constantly to go begging 
for money to the House of Commons ; and that body adopted 
the principle, now one of the corner-stones of the British 
constitution, that " a redress of grievances must precede a 
granting of supplies." Resolved not to yield, the, king dis- 
solved Parliament after Parliament, and sought to raise a 
revenue by reviving various feudal customs. He extorted 
benevolences, sold titles of nobility, and increased monopo- 
lies, until the entire trade of the country was in the hands of 
about two hundred persons. But these makeshifts availed 
him httle, and step by step Parliament gained ground. Be- 
fore the end of his reign it had suppressed the odious mo- 
nopolies, reformed the law-courts, removed obnoxious royal 
favorites, impeached at its bar the highest officers of the 
Crown, made good its claim to exclusive control of taxation, 
and asserted its right to discuss any question pertaining to 
the welfare of the realm. 

Jameses Foreign Policy was, if possible, more unpopular 
in England than his domestic. He undid the work of 
Elizabeth, and wasted the fruit of her triumph over the 
Armada ; cultivated the friendship of Spain ; and, during 
the Thirty- Years' War, refused any efficient aid to his son- 
in-law, the Elector Palatine, though the nation clamored to 
join in the struggle. England now ceased to be the leading 
Protestant power in Europe. 

Charles I. (1625-49), unHke his father James, was 
refined in taste and dignified in manner, but liis ideas of the 



192 



THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 



[1625. 




royal prerogative 
were even more 
exalted. He made 
promises only to 
break them, and 
the nation soon 
learned to donbt 
the royal word. 
His wife, Henriet- 
ta Maria, daughter 
of Henry IV. of 
France, favored 
absolutism after 
the French mod- 
"" el, and hated the 
Puritans, who also 
distrusted her as 
a Catholic. Buck- 
ingham, who had been James's favorite, was the king's chief 
adviser. Wife and favorite both urged Charles on in the 
fatal course to which his own inchnations tended. The 
history of his reign is that of one long 

Struggle hettveen ParUament and King. — The Parliament 
of 1628 wrested from Charles the famous Petition of Right, 
— the second great charter of English liberty. It forbade 
the king to levy taxes without the consent of Parhament, to 
imprison a subject without trial, or to billet soldiers in pri- 
vate houses. Charles, however, as usual, disregarded his 
promise, and then for eleven years ruled like an autocrat. 

During this period no Parliament was convoked, — an 
instance unparalleled in English history. Buckingham hav- 
ing been assassinated by a Puritan fanatic, the Earl of Straf- 
ford and Archbishop Laud became the royal advisers. The 



CHARLES I. AND HIS ARM0U-15P:AREU. 
(From a Painting by Van Dyck.) 



1629-40.] ENGLAND UNDER THE STUARTS. 193 

former contrived a cruel plan known as ''Thorough," by 
which he meant to make the king absolute. In Ireland, 
where the scheme was tried, Irish and English alike crouched 
in terror under his iron rule. Laud was resolved to crush 
the Puritans, and restore to the Church many of its ancient 
usages. All who differed from him were tried in the High 
Commission Court 5 while the Star Chamber^ Court fined, 
whipped, and imprisoned those speaking ill of the king's 
policy, or refusing to pay the money he illegally demanded. 
The Puritans, persecuted on every hand, found their only 
refuge in the wilds of America, and in a single year three 
thousand joined their brethren in New England. 

No tax caused more feeling than the imposition of ship- 
money upon inland towns in time of peace. At last the 
opposition found a voice in John Hampden. He resisted 
the levy of twenty shillings upon his property, and, though 
beaten in the royal court, became the people's hero. 

In Scotland, also, Charles carried matters with a high 
hand. Laud attempted to abolish Presbyterianism, and 
introduce a liturgy. Thereupon the Scotch rose en masse, 
and signed, some of them with their own blood, a cove- 
nant binding themselves to resist every innovation on their 
religious rights. Finally an army of Scots crossed the 
border, and Charles was forced to assemble the celebrated 

^^ Long Parliament'^ (1640), so called because it lasted 
twenty years. The old contest was renewed. Strafford, and 
afterward Laud, were brought to the block ; the Star Cham- 
ber and High Commission Courts were abolished ; and Par- 
liament voted that it could not be adjourned without its 
own consent. At last Charles, in desperation, rashly at- 

1 This court was so called because it met in a chamber at Westminster whose 
ceiling was decorated with gilt stars. " A Loudon citizen was severely punished by- 
one of the royal courts for terming the crest of a nobleman upon the buttons of his 
livery-servant a goose instead of a swan." 



194 



THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 



[1642. 



tempted, with a body of armed men, to arrest in the House 
itself five of the patriot leaders, among them Hampden and 
Pym. They took refuge in the city, whence, seven days 
later, they were brought back to the House of Commons in 
triumph, escorted by London train bands, amid the roar 
of cannon and the shouts of the people. 




CKO.MWKLL DISSOLVING THE LONG PAKLIAMENX 



Civil War (1642-48) was now inevitable. Charles has- 
tened northward and unfurled the royal banner. The Puri- 
tans, together with London and the cities generally, sup- 
ported Parliament; the clergy, the nobles, and the gay 
young men, who disliked the Puritan strictness, favored the 
king.^ Rupert, Charles's nephew, and son of the Winter 

1 The royalists were called Cavaliers, from their skill in riding ; and the parlia- 
tnentarlaus, Roundheads, from the Puritan fashion of wearing closely cnt hair. In 
later times the same parties were styled Tories and Whigs. At the present day the 
two parties are known as Conservatives an<l Radicals, 



1644.] ENGLAND UNDER THE STUARTS. 195 

King (p. 174), was a dashing cavalry -officer, and on field 
after field swept everything before him. The plow-boys, 
apprentice-lads, and shop-keepers, who made up the parlia- 
mentary army, were no match for the English chivahy. 

Marston Moor (1644). — Here a new man came to the front, 
Oliver Cromwell, who, with his Ironsides, — a regiment of 
Puritan dragoons selected and trained after his own plan,^ 
— drove Rupert's cavaliers pell-mell from the field. 

The Independents. — The Puritan party had now become 
strong ; but it was divided into Presbyterians and Independ- 
ents. The Presbyterians, constituting the majority of Par- 
liament, desired religious conformity and to limit the royal 
authority 5 the Independents wished religious toleration 
and to found a republic. CromweU was the chief of the 
latter faction, which now took the lead. Under its auspices, 
the army known as the "New Model" was organized. It 
was composed of earnest. God-fearing men, who fought, not 
for pay, but for liberty of conscience. Perfect discipline was 
combined with enthusiastic religious fervor. Profanity and 
drunkenness were unknown. Officers and men spent their 
leisure in prayer and Bible-reading, and went into battle 
singing psalms and hymns. 

At Nasehij (1645) the New Model fought with the royal 
forces the decisive contest of the war. The Ronndhead 
left wing yielded to the fury of Rupert's Cavaliers, who 
pursued the fugitives in hot haste. Meanwhile Cromwell 
routed the royalist left wing, then turned back, and, attack- 
ing in flank the center, where Charles commanded, swept the 
field. Rupert returned from his mad pursuit, only to find 
the battle over and the royal cause irrevocably lost. 



1 In the evening after Edgehill, the tirst battle of this war, Oliver said to his 
cousin, John Hampden, " It is plain that men of religion are wanted to witlistand 
these gentlemen of honor." 



196 



THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY, 



[1645. 



The King^s Fate. — Charles 
fled to the Scots, who gave 
him up to the Parliament 5 
but the army soon got him 
into its possession. Negotia- 
tions ensued, during which 




EXECUTION OF CHAKLES I. 



the king sought to play off Independents against Presby- 
terians, until his insincerity became evident to all. The 
army, then the master, had'no faith in the king ; and even 
Cromwell and his son-in-law Ire ton, who struggled long to 
mediate upon the basis of civil and religious liberty, were 
forced to yield. A body of soldiers under Colonel Pride 
surrounded the House of Commons, and shut out the Pres- 
byterian members. Thus reduced, by what is known as 
'^Pride's Purge," to about sixty Independents, the House 



1649.] ENGLAND UNDER THE STUARTS. 197 

appointed a commission to try the king on a charge of 
treason. Condemned to death, Charles met his fate with a 
dignity that went far to atone for the errors of his life.^ 

The Commonwealth (1649-60). — Engknd was now to 
be governed without king or lords. Authority was vested in 
the diminished House of Commons, contemptuously styled 
the " Rump." The real ruler, however, was Cromwell, who, 
with his terrible army, silenced all opposition. 

In Ireland and Scotland the Prince of Wales was pro- 
claimed as Charles II. Thereupon Cromwell's merciless 
Ironsides conquered Ireland as it never had been before; 
then, crossing into Scotland, they routed the Covenanters 
at Dunbar, and again, on the anniversary of that victory, 
at Worcester.^ 

War also broke out with Holland for the empire of the 
sea. The Dutch were at first successful, and Van Tromp 
sailed up the Channel with a broom tied at his masthead, to 
show that he meant to sweep the English from the ocean. 



1 " He nothiDg common did or mean 
Upon that memorable scene ; 
But with his keener eye 
The ax's edge did try ; 
Nor called the gods with vulgar spite 
To vindicate his helpless right ; 
But bow'd his comely head 
Down, as upon a heCL."—Marvell. 
When the executioner lifted the severed head from the block, a groan of pity burst 
from the horror-stricken multitude. Yet even in the shadow of the scaffold, Charles 
asserted his continued belief that " a share in government " is " nothing pertaining " 
to the people. 

2 Charles II., as the price of the Scottish support, had signed the Covenant, and 
declared himself afflicted at the thought of his father's tyranny and his mother's idol- 
atry. He had, however, no real hold upon Scotland, and after the battle of Worcester 
became a fugitive. The story of his escape to the Continent is full of romantic adven- 
tures. At one time he took refuge in the spreading branches of an oak-tree whence 
he could see his enemies scouring the country in pursuit; at another lie was dis- 
guised as a groom to a lady who rode behind him on a pillion, as was then the cus- 
tom. Though over forty persons knew his secret, and Parliament had offered a 
reward of one thousand pounds for his capture, all were faithful to their trust, 
and the prince finally reached a collier at the seaside, and was carried across to. 
Normandy. 



198 THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. [1654. 

But the British fleet under the gallant Blake finally forced 
Holland to a treaty agreeing that, when ships of the two 
nations met, the Dutch vessel should salute by striking its 



Cromwell and Parliament. — The Rump did not govern 
satisfactorily, and so Cromwell with a file of soldiers drove 
the members from the hall, and put the keys in his pocket 
(1653). He then called an assembly of his own selection. 
It was known as "Praise-God Barebone's Parliament," from 
the quaint name of one of its members. This body soon 
resigned its power into Cromwell's hands, having given him 
the title of Lord Protector of the Commonwealth. 

The Protectorate. — Cromwell desired to rule constitution- 
ally by means of a Parliament; but the Houses of Com- 
mons which he assembled proved troublesome, and were 
dissolved. So he governed as a military despot. He had the 
power of a king, but, like Julius Caesar, dared not take the 
title. Under his vigorous administration, the glory of Eng- 
land, dimmed by the policy of the Stuarts, shone even 
brighter than under Elizabeth. The Barbary pirates were 
chastised ; Jamaica was captured ; and Dunkirk was received 
from France in return for help against Spain. Everywhere 
protecting the Protestants, Cromwell forced the Dul^e of 
Savoy to cease persecuting the Vaudois; and he dreamed 
of making England the head of a great Protestant league. 
In spite, however, of his genius and strength, of renown 
abroad, and prosperity at home, 

CromwelVs Last Days were fuU of gloom. He had kept 
the hearts of his soldiers, but had broken with almost every 
other class of his countrymen. The people were weary of 
Puritan strictness that rebuked their innocent amuse- 
ments ; weary of the rule of a soldier ; above all, perhaps, 
weary of a republic. Factional strife grew hot, and republi- 



1658.] ENGLAND UNDER THE STUARTS. 199 

can and royalist alike plotted against their new tyrant. 
In constant di'ead of assassination, Cromwell wore a coat 
of man, and, it is said, slept in a different room every 
night. The death of a favorite daughter greatly afflicted 
him. He died shortly afterward, in the midst of a fear- 
ful tempest, on his "Fortunate Day," — the anniversary of 
Dunbar and Worcester. His last words were, "My work 
is done." 




MEDAL OF OLIVEli CROMWELL. 



With him Puritanism seemed to sink out of sight, but 
its best qualities survived, and bequeathed to England, 
as well as to our own New England, its earnestness, its 
fidelity, its fii-mness, its devotion to the right, and its love 
of liberty. 

The Friends, or Quakers, arose at this time through the 
teachings of George Fox. He denounced war, asserted the 
brotherhood of all men, declined to take an oath in court, 
used the second person singular in addressing others, and 
refused to uncover his head in any presence. His followers 
were persecuted, but their zeal, patience, and purity of life 
gained the admiration even of their enemies. The number 
of Friends increased rapidly, and, upon the founding of 
Pennsylvania, many emigrated to the New World. 



200 THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. [1658. 

Richard Cromwell succeeded his father in the protec- 
torate ; but he was a good-natured, easy soul, with no idea 
how to govern, and he soon retired to private life. The 
army was all-powerful, and it seemed at one time as if the 
scenes at Rome, when soldiers set up the crown at auction, 
might be renewed in England. At this juncture General 
Monk, who commanded in Scotland, marched to London, 
and, under his protection, the old Long Parliament met, 
issued writs for a new election, and finally dissolved itself 
(1660). A new Parliament was assembled, and Charles II. 
was invited to the throne of his ancestors.^ 

The Restoration.— Charles II. (1660-85) was wel- 
comed with a tumult of joy. No conditions were imposed ; 
the year of his accession was styled, not the first^ but the 
twelfth, of his reign, and the restored Stuart was made as 
absolute as any Tudor. 

The Reaction. — From Puritan austerity, which forbade not 
only theatrical representations but even Christmas festivities 
and the dance about the May-pole on the village green, the 
people now rushed to the opposite extreme of revelry and 
frivolity. Giddiest of all was the Merry Monarch. King 
and court alike made light of honor and virtue. In the 
plays then acted upon the stage, ridicule was poured upon 
the holiest ties and the most sacred principles. 

England was in a very delirium of royalty. The Es- 
tablished Church was restored, and two thousand ministers 
were expelled from their pulpits as N^onconf or mists. To 
attend a dissenting place of worship became a crime for 
which men were whipped, imprisoned, and transported. 

1 The disbanded Puritan army of 50,000 men quietly went back to their shops and 
fields. Everywhere the gallant soldiers prospered. Not one of them begged for alms 
or was charged with crime. So it came about tliat, "if a baker, a mason, a wagoner, 
attracted attention by his diligence and sobriety, he was, in all probability, one of 
Oliver's old followers." History knows only one otlier such event. That was at the 
close of our own civil war (Hist. U. S., p. 281). 



1665.] ENGLAND UNDER THE STUARTS. 201 

111 Scotland the people generally ^ submitted to the new 
order of things, but along the western lowlands the stern old 
Covenanters, sword and Bible in hand, continued to meet 
their former pastors upon lonely moor and mountain, and, 
though hunted like wild beasts and tortured by thumbscrew 
and iron-boot, still insisted upon their right to worship God 
according to the dictates of their own consciences. 

The Plague broke out in London in 1665. The shops were 
shut, whole blocks stood empty, and grass grew in the streets. 
Houses in which the pestilence raged were marked with a 
red cross, and the words, " Lord have mercy upon us." All 
night long the carts rattled through the streets, with a tolling 
bell and the burier's dismal cry, "Bring out your dead." 
No coffins were used ; no mourners followed their friends ; 
and deep trenches served for graves. To add to the horror 
of the scene, a strange, wild-looking man constantly stalked 
up and down the deserted city, calling out ever and anon in 
a sepulchral voice, " Oh, the great and dreadful God ! " 
Before the plague was stayed, one hundred thousand per- 
sons had perished in the capital alone, and large numbers in 
other places. 

The Great Fire of London broke out in the following 
year. It raged for three days, and swept from the Tower to 
the Temple. Two hundred thousand people were driven to 
the open fields, homeless and destitute.^ 



1 The change that hart taken place is well shown by a single instance. When 
Archbishop Laud sought to introduce a liturgy into Scotland, on the occasion of tlie 
iirst reading of prayers in Edinburgh, one Jenny Geddes inaugurated civil war (1637) 
by hurling a stool at the dean's head. Jenny now cast the contents of her stall and 
basket into a bonfire in honor of the king's coronation and the subsequent action 
of Parliament. 

2 Singularly enough, the fire began in Pudding Lane, near Fish St., and stopped at 
Pie Corner. It is probable that some association of these names led to an inscription 
which formerly existed under a very fat, human figure, still to be seen against the 
wall of a public-house near by : " This boy is in memory put up of the late fire of 
London occasioned by the sin of gluttony, 1666." 



202 THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. [1667. 

Dutch War. — During these calamitous years, a war was 
going on with Holland, — England's rival in commerce. 
Charles squandered on his pleasures the money Parhament 
voted for the navy, and now the Dutch fleet sailed up the 
Thames, and for the fii*st and last time the roar of foreign 
guns was heard in London. That "dreadful sound" broke 
the dream of royalty. Other events, too, were hastening the 
ruin of Charles's popularity, as well as bringing Protestant 
England into alliance with Protestant Holland. 

Charles and Louis XIY. — At this time, France, under 
Louis XIV., had become what Spain was under Philip II., 
the strongest power in Europe and the champion of abso- 
lutism and Catholicism. A dread of France had replaced 
the old Enghsh dislike of Spain. Charles, however, did not 
share in his subjects' fear. Even when his people forced 
him to join the Triple Alliance, he was privately negotiat- 
ing with his cousin Louis, to whom he had already sold Dun- 
kirk, — the Gibraltar of that day, — in order to fill his always 
empty purse ; and, though Parliament was wild to aid Wil- 
liam of Orange in his gallant struggle, Charles signed with 
France the secret Treaty of Dover (1670). In this treaty 
Charles agreed to establish Catholicism in England, and to 
help Louis in his schemes against Holland ; Louis, in turn, 
promised his cousin an annual pension, and the assistance 
of the French army should England resist. 

Plots. — Some inklings of this treaty had been whispered 
about, when the English people were driven frantic by news 
of a so-called "Popish Plot" to massacre the Protestants, 
and to bring over French troops. One Titus Oates, a rene- 
gade Jesuit, pretended to reveal the scheme, and his per- 
jured testimony, amid the heat of the excitement, cost the 
lives of many innocent Catholics, and led to the passage of 
the Test Act, excluding Catholics from Parliament. 



1678.] 



ENGLAND UNDER THE STUARTS. 



203 



James, Duke of 
York^ the king's 
brother and heir 
to the crown, was 
a Catholic, and 
personally very 
unpopular.^ The 
Whigs ^ resolved 
to shut him out 
from the throne. 
They even planned 
an insurrection, 
and a few desper- 
ate ones formed 
the Rye House Plot 
to kill the king 
and his brother. 
The discovery of 
this plot brought unjustly to the block two illustrious men. 
Lord Russell and Algernon Sidney.^ 

The Result of these odious plots was to weaken the Whigs, 
and bring the Tories to the front. Charles was thus able, 
for the last four years of his reign, to rule without a Parlia- 
ment, and to push his despotic schemes. He regularly drew 
his pension from Louis, and helped him as he could, but. 




TITUS GATES IN THE PILLORY. 
(From a Print of the Time. ) 



1 One (lay he cautioned his brother Charles about going unattended, but received 
the bitter retort, "They will never kill me to make you king." 

2 Whig and Tory were nicknames. Whig (whey) was a favorite drink of the 
Covenanters, and initialed their motto: "We Hope In God." Tory was a name 
originally applied to the outlaws of the Irish bogs. Whigs in general favored the 
rights of the people; Tories supported the court and the royal prerogative. 

s Out of the hot discussions of this period came the famous Habeas Corpus (bring 
the body) Act. This law provides that among other rights a prisoner can insist upon 
being brought " bodily " before a judge to have his detention inquired into. Prior to 
that, Mary Queen of Scots had been an uncondemned prisoner for nineteen years. 
Sir Walter Raleigh languished in a dungeon over twelve years. 



204 THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. [1681-85. 

shrewd and intelligent in spite of his idle and pleasure-lov- 
ing nature, he never attempted to overthrow the established 
reUgion of England.^ 

James II. (1685-88) came to the throne without opposi- 
tion. He soon showed that his chief aim was to restore 
Catholicism. To accomplish this end, he resorted to illegal 
measures, and strained the royal prerogative to the utmost. 
At this time Louis XIV. had just revoked the Edict of 
Nantes, and the persecuted Huguenots were flocking to Eng- 
land. Yet James ventured to raise a large and threatening 
standing army, and, in spite of the law of the realm and 
the protest of his Parliament, to officer it extensively with 
his Catholic favorites. In vain the Pope counseled mod- 
eration, and the Cathohc gentry stood aloof. The English 
people submitted, however, as they knew that the next heir 
— James's daughter Mary, wife of WiUiam of Orange — was 
Protestant. But the birth of a Prince of Wales 2 crushed 
this hope. Thereupon Whigs and Tories united in inviting 
William to come to the defense of English liberties. 

The ''Revolution of 1688." — William was welcomed 
almost as gladly as Charles II. had been twenty-eight years 
before. James, deserted by aU, fled to France. A conven- 
tion proclaimed WiUiam and Mary King and Queen of 
England. They agreed to a Bill of Rights that guaranteed 
all for which the people had so long contended. Thus the 

1 He even rebuked the zeal of his brother James, and said in his Ironical way, " I 
am too old to go again upon my travels; you n)ay, if you choose." It is strange that 
Charles, with all his cleverness, did not connect his name with any valuable measure 
of his reign. Shaftesbury's epigram was but too true : 

" Here lies our sovereign lord the king, 
Whose word no man relies on ; 
Who never said a foolish thing, 
And never did a wise one." 

2 On the death of James, Louis XIV. recognized this son as the rightful successor 
(James III.). The Whigs called him the "Pretender." In history he is known as the 
"Old Pretender ; " and his son, as the "Young Pretender" (Charles III.). Charles's 
brother (Henry IX.) was the last male heir of the Stuart line. 



1688.] ENGLAND UNDER THE STUARTS. 205 

English Revolution, which began with the civil war, termi- 
nated after a struggle of eighty-five years. The government 
was finally fixed as a constitutional monarchy. Nothing 
was afterward heard of the divine right of kings, of taxation 
without consent of Parliament, or of Star Chamber courts 
of justice. 

The Deposed King^ returned to Ireland with supplies 
furnished by Louis, and the Irish gallantly supported his 
cause. He besieged Londonderry, but the inhabitants de- 
fended themselves over three months. In the extremity of 
their hunger, they ate rats and mice, and even chewed old 
shoes and hides, yet never spoke of surrender. At last 
the English fleet broke through the boom in the river, and 
the besiegers fled. WiUiam finally crossed into Ireland, and 
ended the war by the Battle of the Boyne (1690), where, 
though wounded, he dashed through the river, and led 
the charge. James, seeing all was lost, fled. "Change 
kings with us," said a brave Irish oflicer, "and we wiU 
fight you again." Once more Ireland was conquered, and 
the native Catholics were ground down under Enghsh 
oppression. 

William III. (1689-1702) was weak and sickly from the 
cradle ; his manner was cold, stiff, and unattractive ; and, 
in spite of his genius and nobility of character, he made few 
friends in England. The death of Mary, whose wifely devo- 
tion had sunk her life in his, and whose cheerfidness had 
brightened his dull court, left him stiH more silent and 
abstracted. The entire reign was disturbed by plots of the 
Jacobites,^ — the friends of James. They took the oath to 
William and joined his counsels only to reveal his plans to 
his enemies. William valued his crown chiefly because it 
strengthened him in carrying out the object of his life, — to 

1 From Jacobus, the Latin for James. 



206 THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. [1702. 

break the power of Louis XIV. In order to gain support in 
his European wars, he yielded power to the House of Com- 
mons, which became what it is to-day, the real governing 
body. While preparing to take the field in the War of the 
Spanish Succession, he died, leaving the crown to Mary's 
sister, 

Anne (1702-14).—" Good Queen Anne," the last of the 
Stuarts, was kind-hearted, but of moderate ability, and was 
ruled by her favorite, the wife of the Duke of Marlborough. 
William's policy being continued, Marlborough ^ was placed 
at the head of the army ; within five years he achieved four 
great victories over France (p. 187). There was a constant 
struggle between the Whigs (the war party) and the Tories 
(the peace party). The Whigs thought of the future inter- 
ests of the country ; the Tories, of the constantly growing 
national debt. Finally the Tories gained the ascendency, 
Marlborough was recalled, and the Peace of Utrecht ended 
the long contest with Louis. Anne's health was affected by 

1 The character of Marlborough— the general who stayed the progress of France, 
and who successively betrayed William III., James II., and Queen Anne— is thus 
brilliantly portrayed by Thackeray, in his novel Esmond : " Our chief, whom Eng- 
land and all Europe, saving only the Frenchmen, worshiped almost, had this of the 
godlike in him, that he was impassible before victory, before danger, before defeat. 
He was always cold, calm, resolute, like fate. He performed a treason or a court 
bow, he told a falsehood as black as Styx, as easilj' as he paid a compliment or spoke 
about the weather. Our duke was as calm at the mouth of the caunon as at the door 
of a drawing-room. Perhaps he could not have been tlie great man he was, had 
he had a heart either for love or liatred, or pity or fear, or regret or remorse. . . . He 
used all men great and small, that came near him, as his instruments alike, and took 
something of theirs, either quality or some propertj' ; the blood of a soldier it miglit be, 
or a jeweled liat, or a hundred thousand from a king, or a portion out of a starving sen- 
tinel's three-fartliings, an<l having tljis of the godlike in liim, that he could see a hero 
perisli or a sparrow fall with the same amount of sympathy. Not that he had no 
tears ; he could always bring up his reserve at the proper moment to battle ; lie could 
draw upon tears and smiles alike, and whenever need was for using this cheap coin. 
He would cringe to a shoeblack, as he would flatter a minister or a monarcli ; be 
haughty, be humble, threaten, repent, weep, gra.sp your liand, or stab j'ou, whenever 
he saw occasion. But yet, those of the army who knew him best, and had suffered 
most from him, admired him most of all ; and, as he rode along the lines to battle, or 
galloped up in tlie nick of time to a battalion reeling from before the enemy's charge 
or shot, the fainting men and officers got new courage as they saw the splendid calm 
of his face, and felt that his will made tliem irresistible." 



1714.] THE CIVILIZATION. 207 

the dissensions of her ministers, and she died in 1714, hav- 
ing buried all her thirteen children. The crown then passed, 
by previous act of Parliament, to the House of Hanover, 
these being " Protestant Heirs/^ as the law required. 

The chief political event of this reign was the union of 
Scotland with England as the Elngdom of Great Britain 
(1707). 

THE CIVILIZATION. 

Progress of Civilization.— The second century of the modern era 
was characterized by the development of literature and science, as the 
first had been by that of commerce and art. 

Literature. — English Literature still flourished. Shakspere yet 
stood at the front, and in the first decade composed his sublime trage- 
dies. Next, Fletcher, Beaumont, and "Rare Ben Jonson" followed 
their master from afar. Jeremy Taylor wrote ' ' Holy Living and Dying ; " 
Richard Baxter, a famous Puritan author, published his ' ' Saints' Rest ; " 
and the quaint Izaak Walton, his '' Compleat Angler." After the Resto- 
ration, there were Dryden, prince of satirists ; Butler, author of the 
witty ^'Hudibras;" and John Locke, whose ^' Essay on the Human 
Understanding" remained a text-book in mental philosophy until 
almost our own day. Milton, who had been secretary of state under 
Cromwell, now, in blindness and poverty, dictated to his daughter the 
immortal epic, '' Paradise Lost;" while Bunyan, shut up in Bedford 
Jail for conscience' sake, dreamed out ''Pilgrim's Progress," — a book 
that has been more read than any other save the Bible. 

French Literature now reached its climax. "No other country," says 
Macaulay, ''could produce a tragic poet equal to Racine, a comic poet 
equal to Moliere, a trifler so agreeable as La Fontaine, a rhetorician so 
skillful as Bossuet." Besides these, who were easily first, there were 
Pascal, whose ''Provincial Letters" created a standard for French 
prose; Fenelon, whose "Telemachus" still retains its wonderful 
popularity ; Boileau, who has been styled the Horace of France ; 
Madame de Sevigne, whose graceful "Letters" are models of episto- 
lary style ; and Massillon, who pronounced over the bier of Louis XIV. 
a eulogy opening with the sublime words, "God alone is great." 

Philosophy now boasted, in England, Bacon, the author of the "Induc- 
tive Method," that teaches men to observe the facts of Nature and thus 
deduce her laws. France possessed Descartes, who, by leading men to 
reason for themselves rather than to search for authority, performed 
for metaphysics the same service that Bacon had for natural science. 



208 



THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 



Holland had Spinoza, whose sublime speculations have influenced 
many of the profoimdest thinkers of the world; though, as Hallam 
remarks, "he did not essentially differ from the Pantheists of old." 
Germany contained the fourth great leader, Leibnitz, in whose encyclo- 
pedic mind philosophy, medicine, theology, jurisprudence, diplomacy, 
and mathematics were all arranged in orderly sequence. He developed 
the theory of optimism,— that, of the possible plans of creation, God 
had adopted the one which economized time, space, and matter. 




POUrUAllS Ol- DUiDKN, MILlO.N, AND ULNYAN. 



Science made rapid strides throughout this entire century. Galileo 
invented the telescope, and was the first to see Jupiter's moons. The 
year that Galileo died, Newton was born (1642). He wrote the ''Prin- 
eipia," explained the theory of colors, and discovered the law of gravita- 
tion ; yet this wonderful man was so modest that a short time before 
his death he declared, ''I seem to myself to have been only a boy play- 
ing on the seashore, . . . while the great ocean of truth lies undis- 
covered before me." Every branch of science felt the inspiration of 
the new method. Torricelli of Florence invented the barometer ; and 
Guericke of Magdeburg, the air-pump. Harvey discovered the circula- 
tion of the blood (1619). Napier, by means of logarithms, shortened 
mathematical operations. Huyghens applied the pendulum to the 
clock. Pascal found that the air has weight. Kepler worked out his 
three famous laws of planetary motion. Horrox observed a transit of 
Venus. Roemer measured the velocity of light. Halley foretold the 
return of a comet. Louis XIV. established the French Academy of 
Sciences J and Charles H., the English Royal Society. Science became 




THE CIVILIZATION. 209 

the fashionable thing under the later Stuarts. There was a royal 
laboratory in the palace at Whitehall, and even the court ladies prated 
of magnets and microscopes. 

Art. — The Netherlands now excelled in art, the Flemish and Dutch 
schools possessing that wonderful trio,— Rubens, Van Dyck, and Rem- 
brandt. Velasquez and Murillo were the great Spanish painters. Italy 
presented nothing better than Salvator Rosa. England had a famous 
architect, — Sir Christopher Wren, — who planned St. Paul's Cathedral 
and fifty churches destroyed in the Great Fire in London; but her 
native painters were of little ability, and the famous portrait of 
Charles I. was by Van Dyck, the Flemish artist, as in the previous 
century those of the Tudors were by Holbein, a German. 

LOUIS XIV. AND HIS COURT. 

The "Grand Monarch" had extravagant ideas of the royal pre- 
rogative, and claimed absolute right over the life and property of every 
subject. His favorite motto was, 
^'I am the state." Vain, imperi- 
ous, self-asserting, with large, 
handsome features, a fine figure, 
and a majestic manner, l he made 
himself the model for artists, the 

theme for poets, the one bright signature of louis xiv. 

sun whose rays all other bodies 

were to reflect. It was only by the grossest flattery and by ascribing 
every success to him that his ministers retained their places ; and the 
slightest afi'ront by any government was the signal to set in motion his 
mighty fleet and army. The absurd adulation poured into the ear of the 
English queen a century before was repeated in the fulsome flattery at 
Versailles, and found as welcome reception. " That which amazeth me 
is that after all these years I do behold you the self-same queen, in per- 
son, strength, and beauty ; insomuch that I am persuaded that time, 
which catcheth everybody else, leaves only you untouched," unblush- 
ingly affirmed even the prosaic Cecil, when Elizabeth was faded, 
wrinkled, and nearing her seventieth year. "Ah, Sire, the rain of 

1 " He walked," says White, " witli the tramp of dignity, rolling his eyes and turn- 
ing oiit his toes, while the courtiers burst into loud applause. The red heels of his 
slioes, four inches high, added much to his stature, hut yet did not bring him up to 
the standard of ordinary men. In imitation of their royal master, all gentlemen tied 
themselves in at the waist, stuck out their elbows, and walked with a strut. They 
al.so wore immense wigs covered with flour, flowing over their vSlioulders, and silver- 
buckled shoes that came nearly up to the ankle. A hat it was impossible for a 
conjurer to balance on the top of the enormous periwig, so they carried the three- 
cornered cockaded superfluity under the arms or in their hands. Rich velvet coats 
with amazingly wide skirts, brocaded waistcoats halfway to the knee, satin small- 
clothes and silk stockings, composed their apparel, which received its crowning 
adornment in gohl-headed cane and diamond-hilted sword." 



210 



THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 



Marly does not wet," protested the dripping Cardinal de Polignac, 
when caught in a shower at the exclusive "rural retreat," fitted up by 
Louis and Madame de Maintenon in the king's old age. 




Tlie Court Etiquette was inflexible, from the morning presentation 
(at the end of a long cane and through the parting of the undrawn bed- 
curtains) of the royal wig, without which his Majesty was never seen, 
down to the formal tucking-in of the royal couch at night. Above all, 



THE CIVILIZATION. 211 

everywhere and always, it was The King who was the etiquette, art, 
and fashion of the day. His courtiers prostrated themselves at his feet 
like oriental slaves. To accompany him in his walks, to carry his cane 
or sword, to hold a taper during his toilet, to draw on his shoes, or even 
to stand and watch his robing, were honors to live and die for. Never 
sated with the most servile flattery, he complacently inhaled the in- 
cense due to a demi-god. 

The Palace at Versailles, built at an expense of over eighty 
million dollars, was the creation of the king, and is a symbol of his own 
character. Vast, ambitious, but coldly monotonous in effect ; magnifi- 
cent in decoration ; recklessly extravagant in the means by which its 
end was attained, and seeking to condense the brilliancy of the entire 
kingdom in itself, — it was the Mecca of every courtier. Stone and 
marble here became an endless series of compliment and homage to 
the royal person, and the acres of elaborate ceiling painted by Lebrun 
are a continued apotheosis, easting all Olympus at the royal feet. 

The Garden, with its long straight avenues bordered by alternating 
trees and statues ; its colossal fountains, where bronze or marble nymphs 
and tritons play with water brought at immense cost from afar ; its 
grand cross-shaped canal ; its terraces and orangeries ; and its flower- 
beds, arranged with stately regularity, — seem all an indefinite prolon- 
gation of an endless palace. 

A Brilliant Court peopled this magnificent abode. Poorly edu- 
cated himself, — being scarcely able to read or write, much less to spell, 
— Louis was munificent in his rewards to men of genius, while he appro- 
priated their glory as his own. A throng of philosophers, statesmen, 
writers, scientists, poets, and painters clustered about the throne ; and 
French "thought, tastes, and language were so impressed upon foreign 
nations that all Europe took on a Parisian tinge. Here, too, were 
women of unusual wit and beauty, whose power was felt in every pub- 
lic act. Social deference and gallantry — led by the king, who, it is said, 
never passed a woman, even a chambermaid, without lifting his hat — 
gave them the political rights denied by law. They were the head and 
soul of all the endless intrigues of the time. Again, as in the days of 
chivalry, a woman's smile was the most coveted reward of valor; and 
political schemes were wrought out, not in the cabinet of a statesman, 
but in the salon of a lady. Conversation in this brilliant circle was 
made an art. '* We argue and talk, night and day, morning and even- 
ing, without object, without end," wrote Madame de Sevigne, herself 
one of the most distinguished wits of the day. Letter-writing became 
a passion, and the graceful epistles of this century are a fit sequel 
to the spicy memoirs of the preceding one. 

By common consent, the latter part of the 17th century is known in 
history as the age of Louis XIV. 



212 



THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY, 



SUMMARY. 

The 17th was the century of Richelieu, Gustavus Adolphus, Louis 
XIV., Cromwell, the Stuarts, Milton, Corneille, Bacon, Newton, Galileo, 
Rubens, Rembrandt, and Murillo. It saw the assassination of Henry 
IV. ; the Thirty-Years' War ; the victories of Turenne and Conde ; 
the Treaty of Westphalia ; the long struggle between Louis XIV. and 
William of Orange ; three great wars of the age of Louis XIV. ; the 
revocation of the Edict of Nantes; the rise of Puritanism; the battles 
of Marston Moor and Naseby ; the execution of Charles I. ; the glories 
of the Protectorate ; the restoration of the Stuarts ; and the Revolu- 
tion of 1688. 

READING REFERENCES. 

General Modern Histories named on p. 123, and the Special Histories of England, 
France, Germany, etc., on p. 112.— 3Iaeaulay's History of England {Chainer III., for 
Picture of Life in the Seventeenth Cetitury).— Schiller's History of the Thirty- Years' 
War.— Gardiner's Thirty- Years' War ; and the Puritan Revolution ,- Hale's Fall 
of the Stuarts {Epochs of History Series).— Voltaire's Age of Louis XIV.— Ban- 
croft's History of the United States (chapters relating to English statesmen and 
their views).— Taine's Ancient Segime.— Browning's Great Rebellion {Hand-book 
of History Series).— Hausscr's Period of the Reformation (Thirty-Years' War).— 
Trench's Lectures on Gustavus Adolphus. -Cordery and Phillpott's King and Com- 
monwealth.— Motley's John of Barneveld (Sully and Henry IV.). -Rob son's Life 
of Richelieu.— Bulwer Lytton's Richelieu (drama).— James's 3Iemoirs of Great Com- 
manders (Conde and Turenne).— James's Life of Louis XIV.— Clement's Life of 
Colbert.— Mackay's Popular Delusions, art. The Mississippi Scheme, South Sea Bubble, 
etc.— Stephen's Lectures on French History.— Pardoe's Louis XlV.—Challice's Mem- 
ories of French Palaces.— James's Heidelberg ; Richelieu (fiction).— Rambaud's His- 
tory of Russia from the Earliest Times.— Dunham's Histories of Poland; Spain 
and Portugal; and Denmark, Sweden, and Norway.— Walpole's Short History of the 
Kingdom of Ireland. 

CHRONOLOGY. 



A. 1). 

Union of English and Scottish 

crowns under James I 1603 

Henry IV. assassinated 1610 

Thirty- Years' War 1618-^8 

Age of Richelieu 1622-42 

Siege of Rochelle 1628 

Gustavus Adolphus lands in Pome- 

rania 1630 

Siege of Magdeburg 1631 

Battle of Leipsic 1631 

Battle of Liitzen, death of Gustavus 1632 

Long Parliament meets 1640 

Battles of Rocroi, Freiburg Nord- 

lingen, and Lens 1643-48 

Louis XIV 1643-1715 



A. D. 

Battleof Marston Moor 1644 

Battle of Naseby 1645 

Peace of Westphalia 1648 

Charles I. beheaded 1649 

Battles of Dunbar and Worcester.. 1650-51 
Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protector.. 1653-58 

Great Fire in London 1666 

Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle 1668 

Peace of JSfimegueu 1678 

Habeas Corpus Act passed 1679 

Peter the Great... 1682-1725 

Edict of Nantes revoked 1685 

William and Mary crowned 1689 

Tieaty of Ryswick 1697 

Charles XII., King of Sweden 1697 



CONTEMPOKARY SOVEREIGNS. 



213 



CONTEMPORARY SOVEREIGNS. 



ENGLAND. 


FRANCE. 


GERMANY. 


SPAIN. 




James I 1C03 


Hemy IV 1589 

Louis XIII.... 1610 


Rudolph 1576 

Matthias 1612 


Philip III 


. 1598 


Charles 1 1625 




Ferdinaml II.. 1619 
Ferdinand III. 1637 


Philip IV 


. 1621 


Commonwealth 1049 


Louis XIV 16-13 








Charles II ICGO 




Leopold I 1658 






James II 1085 






Charles II 


. 1«65 


William ami 










Mary 1689 












THE PALACE OF THE LUXEMBURG. 



214 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 

THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 

I. PETER THE GREAT OF RUSSIA, AND CHARLES XII. OF SWEDEN. 

Russia was founded in the 9th century by the Norse- 
man, Ruric. Christianity (Greek, p. 15) was introduced by 
his son's wife, Olga. This Slavic land, repeatedly overrun 
by Mongol hordes (p. 99), was finally conquered by Oktai. 
For over two centuries the House of Ruric paid tribute to 
the Khan of the Golden Horde. lean the Great (1462-1505) 
threw off this Tartar yoke, and subdued Novgorod ; while 
Ivan the Terrible (who first took the title of Czar, 1533-84) 
conquered Kazan, Astrakhan, and Siberia. Feodor, Ivan's 
son, was the last of the Ruric line (1598). After years of 
civil war, the crown fell (1613) to Michael Romanoff, an- 
cestor of the present czar. Russia was now a powerful 
but barbarous empire, having only one seaport. Archangel, 
and without manufactures or a navy. Shut off by the 
Swedes from the Baltic and by the Turks from the Black 
Sea, it had little intercourse with the rest of Europe until 
the time of 

Peter the Great. — From the age of ten, when he be- 
came joint king with his demented half-brother, this youth- 
ful czar was plotted against by his unscrupulous step-sister, 

Geographical Questions.— Locaie Azof; Copenhagen; Moscow; Pultowa; 
Frederickshall ; Warsaw; Dettingen; Fontenoy ; Raucoux; Lawfelt; Lowositz; 
Kolin; Rossbach; Leutlien; Zorndorf; Kunersdorf ; Torgau; Leignitz ; Huberts- 
burg; Potsdam; Berlin. 

Point out Brandenburg ; Livonia ; Finland ; Electorate of Saxony ; Silesia ; Ingria. 

Locate Valmy; Jemmapes; Neerwinden ; Lyons; Nice; Lodi ; Parma; Pavia; 
Castiglione; Bassano; Arcole ; Mantua; MontCenis; Simplon Pass; Marengo; 
Vienna; Hobenlinden ; Ulm; Jena; Austerlitz ; Eylau ; Friedland; Tilsit; Tala- 
vera; Torres Vedras; Saragossa; Salamanca; Vittoria; Madrid; Wagramj 
Dresden; Borodino; Moscow; Leipsic; Ligny; Waterloo. 



1689.] 



PETER THE GREAT OF RUSSIA. 



215 



tlie regent Sophia. When seventeen years old, he grasped 
the scepter for hhnself (1689).^ At once he began to civilize 
and elevate his savage subjects. Having organized some 
troops after the European manner and built a small flotilla, 
he sailed down the Don and captured Azof, the key of the 
Euxine, and Russia's first seaport on the south. He next 




PORTRAIT OF IVAN THE TERRIBLE. 

resolved to visit foreign countries and learn the secret of 
their progress. 

Feter in Western Europe. — Leaving the government in 
the hands of an old noble, he accordingly went to Amster- 

1 The year of the devastation of the Palatinate by Louis XIV.: also that in 
fphich England secured a constitutional government under William lit. 



216 



THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 



[1697. 




dam, where he hired as a la- 
borer in a ship-yard. Under 
the name of Peter Zimmer- 
mann, he plied his adze, 
earned his regular wages, 
lived in two rooms and a gar- 
ret, mended his clothes, and cooked his own food. Mean- 
while, besides learning how to build a ship, he studied the 
manufactures and institutions of this famous Dutch city, 
where he picked up blacksmithing, enough of cobbling 
to make a pair of slippers, and of surgery to bleed and 
to pull teeth. Then, crossing to England, he was 
heartily received by William III., and presented with a 
fine yacht, which he soon learned to manage with the 



1698.] CHARLES XII. OF SWEDEN. 217 

best of the sailors. On his return to Russia, Peter began 
his 

Great Reforms. — He commanded his subjects to give up 
their long beards and flowing Asiatic robes. He lessened 
the power of the nobles. He encouraged the women of 
rank to come out of their oriental seclusion and mingle in 
society. He granted reUgious toleration and circulated the 
Bible. He introduced arithmetic into the government 
offices, where accounts had previously been kept by a system 
of balls threaded on wire. He set up printing-presses; 
founded schools, hospitals, and paper factories ; built a fleet, 
and organized an army. In order to gain a port on the 
Baltic, he leagued with Denmark and Poland to dismember 
Sweden. 

Charles XII., the "Madman of the North/' then King 
of Sweden, though but eighteen years old, was boyish only 
in age, while the Swedish army retained the discipline that 
under Gustavus had won the fields of Leipsic and Liitzen. 
Undismayed by his triple foes, Charles swiftly marched to 
attack Copenhagen, and in two weeks brought Denmark to 
his feet; next, advancing with only nine thousand men 
against the sixty thousand Russians who were besieging 
Narva, he defeated them with great slaughter ; then, invad- 
ing Poland, he deposed its monarch, Augustus the Strong 
(1704),^ and, pursuing him into his Saxon electorate, forced 
him to sue for peace. Charles was now at the pinnacle of 
his glory. England and France sought his alliance, and 
the conqueror of Blenheim visited his court. 

Peter, when he learned of the defeat at Narva, coolly said, 

1 " It is impossible to avoid comparing the occupations and amusements of the 
three strong men of this time,— Charles, riding horses to death, and beheading sheep 
and bullocks in order to practice with his sword ; Augustus the Strong, straightening 
horseshoes and rolling up silver plates with one hand ; and Peter, hammering out 
iron bars, filling fire-works, and building ships." Read Schuyler's " Peter the Great," 
Scribner's Monthly, Vol. 21 ; and "The Romanofifs," Harper's Monthly, Vol. 67. 



218 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY* [1709. 

" These Swedes, I knew, would beat us for a time, but they 
will soon teach us how to beat them." He now strained 
every nerve to strengthen his forces while Charles was 
triumphing in Poland. He disciplined his soldiers, and 
even melted the bells of Moscow, to cast cannon. He cap- 
tured Narva, the scene of his first misfortune ; pushed the 
Swedes back from the banks of the Neva; and there, 
amid its marshes, founded a great commercial city, — St. 
Petersburg. Three hundred thousand peasants were set 
at work upon the new capital, and within a year it rose 
to importance. 

Charles's Overthrow. — Rejecting every offer of peace, 
Charles, like a greater warrior a century later (p. 262), 
dreamed of dictating a treaty under the walls of Moscow, 
and rashly invaded Russia. Peter's skirmishers hung on 
the flanks of the Swedish army, destroying the roads and 
laying waste the country. Still Charles pressed on, dur- 
ing a winter so severe that two thousand men once froze 
to death almost in his presence. At Pultoiva Peter gave 
him battle (1709). Though wounded, Charles was borne 
to the field in a htter. When that was shattered by a 
cannon-ball, his gallant soldiers carried him about upon 
their pikes. But the Swedes had at last taught the Rus- 
sians how to conquer. Charles was overpowered, and es- 
caped into Turkey with only three hundred men. 

There he staid nearly five years, while his Idngdom, de- 
prived of its head, went to ruin. The Turks at first espoused 
his cause, but, irritated by his pride and obstinacy, finally re- 
solved to expel their unwelcome guest. The heroic madman 
armed his servants, barricaded his house, and with his own 
sword slew twenty of his assailants before he submitted. 

Wlien at last he returned home, he found Sweden shorn 
of its conquests and exhausted by war. But, carried away 



1718.] PETER THE GREAT OF RUSSIA. 219 

by an insane love of glory, he invaded Norway in the depth 
of winter. Europe watched with amazement the com-se of 
the infatuated monarch. Suddenly news came that he had 
been shot in the trenches at Frederickshall (1718).^ 

Peter's Latter Years were full of patriotic labors. 
As the result of his Swedish war, he gained Ingria, Livonia, 
and a part of Finland, thus affording Russia a broad front 
upon the Baltic. By a war with Persia he won land upon 
the Caspian Sea. Still his work of civilization went bravely 
on. A grateful people bestowed upon him the titles of 
the Great, and the Father of his Country. His last act was 
one of mercy. While wading out to rescue some ship- 
wrecked sailors, he caught a fever of which he died. He 
expired in the arms of his wife Catharine,^ who succeeded 
him to the crown of all the Russias (1725). 

Further Additions of territory were made by Catharine 
(II.) the Great, who conquered the Crimea, and thus gained 
control of the Black Sea. She also,'in conjunction with Aus- 
tria and Prussia, dismembered Poland. The Poles, under 
Poniatowski and Kosciusko (Hist. IT. S., p. 122), took an heroic 
stand in defense of their liberties. But the valor of these 
brave patriots, armed with scythes, hatchets, and hammers, 

1 " On what foundation stands the warrior's pride, 
How just his hopes, let Swedish Charles decide : 
A frame of adamant, a soul of fire. 
No dangers fright him, and no labors tire. 



Peace courts his hand, but spreads her charms in vain ; 
'Think nothing gained,' he cries, * till naught remain.' 



His fate was destined to a barren strand, 
A petty fortress and a dubious hand ; 
He left a name at which the world grew pale. 
To point a moral or adorn a tale." 

Johnson's Vanity of Human Wishes. 

2 She was an orphan peasant girl, who fascinated Peter by her beauty. Though 
she could neither read nor write, yet her merry humor, quick intelligence, and kind 
heart held the love of this " barbarian tyrant," and soothed him in his terrible fits 
Qf stormy rq,ge and hate. 



220 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. [1794-95. 

served only to increase the horror of their country's ruin. 
In his intrenched camp before Warsaw, Kosciusko for a time 
held his swarming foes at bay; but overpowered at last, 
bleeding and a captive, he exclaimed, " This is the end of 
Poland." Prophetic words! The next year Poland was 
finally " pa,rtitioned " between Russia, Prussia, and Austria, 
Russia receiving of the robbers' spoils 181,000 square miles. 
It was the greatest crime of the 18th centuiy. But this 
vast addition of territory brought Russia into the center of 
Europe, and gave her an interest in aU its affairs. 

II. RISE OF PRUSSIA IN THE AGE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT. 

Brandenburg (p. 80), to which the Duchy of Prussia 
had been added, made little figure in history until the time 
of Frederick Wilham, the Great Elector (1640-88). A rapid, 
clear-eyed man, he dexterously used his compact, weU-disci- 
plined little army, amid the complications of that eventful 
period, so as to conserve the Brandenburg interests. He en- 
couraged trade, made roads, and welcomed the Huguenots 
whom Louis XIV. drove from France. In the first year of 
the 18th century his son Frederick received from Leopold I., 
in return for furnishing the emperor troops during the War 
of the Spanish Succession, the title of King of Prussia. 

HOUSE OF BRANDENBURG IN PRUSSIA. 

Fkederick William, the Great Elector (1640-88). 

FREDERICK I,, King of Prussia (1688-1713). 

Frederick William i. (1713^0). 

I 

I I I 

Frederick II. (1740-86). Augustus William. henry. 

Frederick William II. (1786-97). 

L_ 

I I 

Frederick William hi. (1797-1840). lewis. 

I 



J--- k 



FREDSBICK WILLIAM IV. (1840-61). WILLIAM I. (1861). 

Frederick William Nicholas. 



1713.] THE RISE OF PRUSSIA. 221 

Frederick William I. (1713-40), whom Carlyle calls 
the "Great Prussian Drill Sergeant/' practiced the most 
rigid economy in order to increase his army. He permitted 
only one extravagance, — a whim for giants. A tall man he 
would bribe, kidnap, or force into his body-guard, at any 
cost.i He left a well-filled treasury, and eighty-four thou- 
sand soldiers to his son, 

Frederick (II.) the Great (1740-8 6). 2— The young 
prince had seemed to be more a poet and philosopher than 
a "born king," but he now revealed himself as a military 
despot, counseling with no one, confiding in no one, and 
having but one object, the aggrandizement of Prussia. 

War of the Austrian Succession (1741-48). — The same 
year Frederick came to the throne, the emperor Charles VT. 
died, leaving his daughter Maria Theresa mistress of the 
hereditary dominions of the House of Austria — Hungary, 
Bohemia, Austria, etc. By a law known as the Pragmatic 
Sanction, the great powers of Europe had guaranteed her 
succession, but now all except England joined to rob her of 
her inheritance. Frederick at once poured his troops into 
Silesia, which he claimed as having once belonged to Bran- 



1 An Irishman seven feet high was hired by a bounty equal to $6,200,— a larger 
sum than the salary of the Prussian ambassador at the court of St. James. 

2 Frederick's father possessed "eccentricities such as," says Macaulay, "had 
never before been seen outside of a mad-liouse." He would cane clergymen who 
ventured to stop in the street to admire liis famous soldiery, and even kick judges 
off the bench for rendering a decision opposed to his wishes. On one occasion he 
tried to push his daughter into the fire, and for the least complaint from his children 
at the table he would throw the dishes at their heads. The Crown Prince Frederick 
excited the king's bitterest animosity. Frederick showed little love for a military 
life; liked finery; studied Latin clandestinely; played the flute; wore long, curly 
locks; and preferred the French language and manners to the homely German. His 
father flogged him in front of liis regiment, and then taunted him with the disgrace. 
At last Fritz's life became so unendurable that he tried to run away, but he was ar- 
rested, condemned by court-martial, and would have been executed by the irate king 
had not half the crowned lieads in Europe interfered. Afterward Fritz contrived 
to soften the hatred of his surly, irascible father, and in the end proved a filial 
sequel to him, in his hearty hatred of shams, his love of a military life, and even his 
slovenly dress and irritable temper. 



222 



THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 



[1741. 




denburg. The Elector of Saxony 
invaded Bohemia. France sup- 
ported the claims of the Elector 
of Bavaria to the imperial crown, 
and a French-Bavarian army 
pushed to within a few leagues 
of Vienna. Fleeing to the Diet 







FREDERICK THE GREAT REVIEWING HIS GRENADIERS AT TOTSDAM. 



of Hungary, the queen commended to it her infant son. 
The brave Magyar nobles, drawing their sabers, shouted, 
" We will die for our king, Maria Theresa ! " A powerful 
army was formed in her defense. Frederick was bought off 
by the cession of Silesia. The French, left single-handed 
to bear the brunt of the battle, were blockaded in Prague, 



1743.] THE AGE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT. 223 

and at last only by a disastrous flight escaped to the fron- 
tier. George II. now took the field at the head of the 
English and Hanoverian troops, and defeated the French at 
Dettingen. 

Frederick, alarmed at Maria Theresa's success, and think- 
ing she might demand back his conquests, resumed the war, 
and gained three battles in succession. Meanwhile the Elec- 
tor of Bavaria died, his son submitted to Maria Theresa, 
and her husband was chosen emperor as Francis I. Fred- 
erick was only too glad to sign with Francis the Peace of 
Dresden, and thus retain Silesia. 

But the struggle of France with Austria and England 
still went on. Louis XV.'s army in the Netherlands, under 
the famous Marshal Saxe, won the brilliant victories of 
Fontenoy, Raucoux, and Lawfelt. The peace of Aix-la- 
Chapelle (1748) closed this unjust war. Louis, sa3dng that 
he treated as a prince and not as a merchant, surrendered 
his conquests; so that France and England acquired 
nothing for all their waste of blood and treasure, while 
the King of Prussia, whose selfish policy began the contest, 
was the only real gainer. 

Seven-Years' War (1756-63). — Eight years of peace now 
followed, — a breathing-spell that Frederick employed in 
improving his newly acquired lands, and in strengthening 
his army. Maria Theresa, however, was determined to re- 
cover Silesia, and, by the help of her great minister Kaunitz, 
formed an alliance of Austria, France, Russia, Saxony, Swe- 
den, and Poland, against Prussia. George IL of England, in 
order to save his beloved Hanover, alone supported Fred- 
erick. No one imagined Prussia could meet such tremen- 
dous odds. 

1st Campaign. — Frederick, learning of this league, determined to 
strike the first blow. Pouring his ever-ready army into Saxony, he 



224 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. [1756. 

defeated the Austrians at Lo'ioositz (1756), and, gurrounding the Sax- 
ons, compelled them to surrender and enlist in his ranks. 

2d Campaign. — The next year he beat the Austrians under the walls 
of Prague. But now misfortunes gathered fast. He met his first great 
defeat at Eolin; the Russians invaded Prussia; the Swedes landed in 
Pomerania ; the French, after capturing the English army in Hanover, 
advanced toward Saxony ; and in the midst of all came tidings of the 
death of his mother, the only being whom he loved. In despair i Fred- 
erick thought of suicide, but his highest glory dates from this gloomy 
hour. Rallying his men and his courage, he turned upon his foes, and 
won the victories of Rosshacli over the French, and Leuthen over the 
Austrians. His genius set all the world to wondering. London was 
ablaze in his honor, and Pitt, the English prime minister, secured him 
a gi'ant of £700,000 per annum. 

The 3d Campaign witnessed a victory over the Russians at Zorndorf, 
but saw Frederick beaten at Eunersdorf, while twenty thousand of his 
men surrendered in the Bohemian passes. 

4th-6th Campaigns. — Now, for three years longer, the circle steadily 
narrowed about the desperate king. Surrounded by vastly superior 
armies, he multiplied his troops by flying from point to point. Beaten, 
he retired only to appear again in some unexpected quarter. He broke 
through the enemies' toils at Leignitz, and stormed their intrenched 
camp at Torgau. 

But victory and defeat alike weakened Frederick's forces ; his capital 
was sacked ; his land wasted ; his army decimated ; his resources were 
exhausted, and it seemed as if he must yield, when a death saved him. 
Elizabeth, Empress of Russia, died, and her successor, Peter III., his 
warm friend, not only withdrew from the league, but sent him aid. 
The other allies were weary of the contest, and the proud Maria The- 
resa was forced to make peace with her hated rival. The treaties of 
Paris and Hubertsburg (1763) ended a gigantic struggle that had cost 
a million of lives. 

The Besult of the Seven- Years' War was to leave Silesia 
in Frederick's hands. He was felt to be one of the few great 
men whose coming into the world changes the fate of a 
conntry. Prussia, from a petty kingdom that nobody feared, 
was raised to be one of the Five Great Powers of Europe. 

1 In this extremity Frederick solaced himself by writing poetry. " We hardly 
know," says Macaulay, "any instance of the strength and weakness of human 
nature so striking and so grotesque as the character of this liaughty, vigilant, reso- 
lute blue-stocking, bearing up against a world in arms, with an ounce of poison in 
one pocket and a quire of bad verses in the other." 



1763.] THE AGE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT. 225 

She was now the rival of Austria. The question which 
should be supreme was not settled until our own time.^ 
The Holy Roman Empire was thenceforth, in effect, divided 
between these two leaders, and the minor German states 
were grouped about them according to their interest or 
inclination. 

Government. — Frederick quickly set himseK to repair 
the waste of these terrible years. He practiced the most 
rigid economy, rebuilt houses, furnished seed, pensioned 
the widows and children of the slain, drained marshes, con- 
structed roads and canals, established museums, and devel- 
oped trade. When he inherited the kingdom, it contained 
two millions of inhabitants, and a treasury with six million 
thalers ; he died, leaving an industrious and happy people 
numbering six millions, and a public treasure of seventy- 
two million thalers.^ 



1 The " Seven-Years' War" made Prussia a European power; a " Seven- Weeks' 
War" (1866) placed it above Austria; and a "Seven-Months' War" (1870) made the 
King of Prussia emperor of all German j\ 

2 One of his last acts was to make a treaty with our young republic; and our his- 
torians record with pride that he sent to Washington a sword inscribed, " The oldest 
general in the world to the bravest." Like his father, he was fond of walking or rid- 
ing througli the streets, talking familiarly with the people, and now and then using 
his cane upon an idler. On one occasion he met a company of schoolboys, and 
rouglily addressed them, "Boys, what are you doing here? Be off to school." One 
of the boldest answered, " Oh, you are king, and don't know there is no school to- 
day ! " Frederick laughed heartily, dropped his uplifted cane, and gave the urcliins 
a piece of money with which to enjoy their holiday.— A windmill at Potsdam stood 
on some ground which he wanted for his park, but he could not get it because the 
miller refused to sell, and he, though absolute monarch, would not force him to leave. 
This building is carefully preserved to-day, as a monument of Frederick's respect for 
the rights of a poor man (Taylor's Hist, of Germany). The famous palace at Potsdam 
was built by Frederick just after the Seven-Years' War, to show the world that lie 
was not so poor as was supposed. It is second only to the palace of Versailles. 
Building was Frederick's sole extravagance. After the war, he had only one fine 
suit of clothes for tlie rest of his life. It is said that he was buried in a sliirt belong- 
ing to a servant. He allowed free speech and a free press. " My people and I," said 
he, " understand each other. Tliey are to say what tliey like, and I am to do wliat I 
like." He tolerated all religions, probably because he cared for none himself. His 
infidelity, his hatred of woman, his disregard of the feelings and lives of others, 
and his share in tlie spoliation of Poland (p. 219), form the dark side of this brilliant 
character, and leave us no chance to love, however liighly we may admire. 



226 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. [1714. 

III. ENGLAND UNDER THE HOUSE OF HANOVER. 

The House of Hanover, wliicli still wears the crown 
of England, came to the throne early in the 18th century. 
ParUament, to secure a Protestant succession, changed it 
(1701) from the male Stuart line to Sophia of Hanover, 
whose mother was sister to Charles I. Sophia having died, 
her son George, Elector of Hanover, became king (1714), 
thus uniting the crowns of Hanover and England. 

TABLE OF THE HANOVER (BRUNSWICK-LUNEBURG) LINE. 

George I. (1714-27). Compare table, p. 188. 
GEORGE II. (1727-60). 

GEORGE III. (1760-1820), grandson of George II. 

\ 

GEORGE IV. (1820-30). WILLIAM IV. (1830-37). EDWARD, Duke of Kent. 

VICTORIA (1837). 

The political history of England under the Georges re- 
veals an increased power of the House of Commons and a 
bitter strife between Whigs and Tories. The 18th century 
saw also our Revolutionary War with England. 

George I. (1714-27), a Uttle, elderly G-erman, unable to 
speak a word of EngUsh, cold, shy, obstinate, and sullen ; 
whose manners were as bad as his morals ; whose wife was 
imprisoned for some alleged misconduct ; and whose heart 
was always in his beloved Hanover, — naturally excited little 
feeling of loyalty among his British subjects. He was, how- 
ever, frugal, industrious, truthful, and governed by a strong 
sense of duty. A despot in Hanover, he was a moderate 
ruler in England, leaving the control of the country mostly 
to Parhament. Having been elected by the Whigs, he chose 
his ministers from that party. 

The South 8ea Scheme, or Company, was organized (1720) 
to assume a part of the national debt, and, in return, to 










^J (<(, 



'^'&^.. 



irhlt. 

Sea 



C) y 




1720.] ENGLAND — THE HOUSE OP HANOVER. 227 

have a monopoly of the South American trade. It brought 
on a rage for speculation. The shares rose to ten times their 
par value. Finally the bubble burst, a panic ensued, and 
thousands were ruined. In this emergency all eyes turned to 

Robert Walpole, who was made prime minister. His finan- 
cial skill restored the public credit. For over twenty years 
(1721-42) he controlled the domestic policy of the country. 
He was a shrewd party-leader, and is said to have managed 
the House of Commons by bribery ; but his policy made for 
peace and liberty, and meanwhile England prospered. 

George II. (1727-60) could speak a little English, and so 
had the advantage over his father. He possessed, however, 
no kingly virtues except justice and bravery; while his 
attachment to his native country kept him interfering in 
continental affairs.^ England was thus dragged into the 
War of the Austrian Succession, and the Seven- Years' War. 

In the War of the Austrian Succession, George beat the 
French at Dettingen;^ his son, the Duke of Cumberland, 
was beaten by them at Fontenoy. The Peace of Aix-la- 
Cliapelle, that closed the contest, gave England no return 
for the blood and gold her king had lavished so freely. 

In the Seven-Years^ War, England and France measured 
their strength mainly by sea, and in America and India. 
This contest is known in our history as the French and 
Indian War (Hist. U. S., p. 81). It culminated in the bat- 
tle of the Plains of Abraham, that wrested Canada from the 

1 George, who was over tliirty years old when his father became king, was always 
running "liome" to Hanover. Once he was gone two years, while Queen Caroline 
remained in England. During his absence, a notice was posted on the gate of St. 
James's Palace : " Lost or strayed out of this house a man wlio has left liis wife and six 
childieu on tlie parish. A reward is offered of four shillings and sixpence for news 
of his whereabouts. Nobody thinks him worth a crown (five shillings)." 

2 George was a dapper little clioleric sovereign. At Dettingeu his horse ran away, 
and he came near being carried into the enemy's line. Dismounting, he cried out, 
"Now, I know I sliall not run away," and, charging at tlie liead of liis men, he en- 
couraged them with bad Euglisli but genuine pluck. It was tlie last time an English 
kiug was seen in battle. 



228 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. [1757. 

French. In Asia, Robert Clive, by the victory of Plassey 
(1757), broke the French power and laid the foundation of 
England's supremacy in the East.^ 

William Pitt, the Great Commoner (afterward Earl of 
Chatham), came to the front dm*ing these colonial wars. 
He ruled by the strength of his character, and " trusting his 
countrymen," says Gardiner, " above that which they were 
able to do, roused them to do more than they had ever 
done before." Under his vigorous premiership, England 
won two empires, — North America and India. 

The Rise of Metliodism was a remarkable event of this 
reign. It began at Oxford, in the meeting of a little band 
of university men for prayer and religious conversation. 
Their zeal and methodic ways gave them the nickname of 
Methodists. But from that company went forth Wliitefield, 
such a preacher as England had never before seen ; Charles 
Wesley, the "Sweet Singer;" and John Wesley, the head 
and organizer of the new movement. "Their voice was 
heard," says Green, "in the wildest and most barbarous 
corners of the land, among the bleak moors of Northumber- 
land, in the dens of London, or in the long galleries where 
the Cornish miner hears in the pauses of his labor the sob- 
bing of the sea." They were mobbed, stoned, and left for 
dead; but their enthusiasm stirred the heart of England, 
aroused men to philanthropic work among the English 
masses, gave to common life a spiritual meaning, started 
evangelical labors in the Established Church, and founded a 
denomination that in our time numbers its members by 
millions. 

1 The wars in Inilla have been characterized by fiendish cruelty. Thus, in the 
year precedin ^Plassey, the nabob of Bengal drove one hundred and forty-six English 
prisoners into a close room twenty feet square (known as the Black Hole), and left 
them to die of suffocation. The next morning only twenty-three persons remained 
alive. It is noticeable that England in first meddling with, and then absorbing, 
province after province in India, has followed the old Roman plan (Auc. Peo.,p. 237). 



17G0.] ENGLAND — THE HOUSE OF HANOVER. 



229 




GEOUGE III. 



George III. (1760-1820) was 
a ^' born EngHslimau/' and so the 
people ceased to grumble about 
"foreign kings." In his first 
speech to Parhament he said: 
" Born and educated in this 
country, I glory in the name 
of Briton." 

The purity and piety of 
George's private character gave 
to the English court a beautiful 
home-life. But, though a good 
man, this " Best of the Georges " did not prove a good king. 
He was didl, iU educated, prejudiced, obstinate, and bent 
upon getting power for himself. The Tories got control of 
the government. Pitt retired from the ministry. George, 
jealous of great men, brought about him incompetent min- 
isters like Bute, Grenville, and North, — mouthpieces of his 
stupid will and bHnd courage. In such an administration, 
one easily finds the causes that cost England her American 
colonies. 

This was the longest reign in English history, and reached 
far into the 19th century. Late in his life (p. 277) the king 
became insane,^ and the Prince of Wales ruled as regent. 
The sixty years saw England involved in the War of the 
American Revolution, the French Revolution, and the War 
of 1812-14. 

1 George III. had been subject for many years to occasional attacks of insanity. 
History presents no sadder figure tlian tliat of this old man, blind and deprived of 
reason, wandering through the rooms of his palace, addressing imaginary parlia- 
ments, reviewing fancied troops, and holding ghostly courts. . . . Some lucid mo- 
ments he had, in one of which the queen, desiring to see him, entered the room, and 
found him singing a hymn and accompanying himself at the harpsichord. When he 
had finished, he knelt down, and prayed aloud for her, for liis family, and tlien for 
the nation. He concluded with a prayer for himself that it might please God to avert 
his calamity from him, but if not to give him resignation to submit. Upon that he 
burst into tears, and again his reason fled (Thackeray's Four Georges). 



230 THE EIGHTEE2^1K CENTURY. [1783-1801. 

Fox, and Fitt the Younger, were, after the American Revo- 
lution, the great statesmen of the day. The former led the 
Whigs ; the latter (second son of the Great Commoner), the 
Tories. Fox possessed eloquence and ability, but he was 
a gambler and a boon-companion of the erring Prince of 
Wales. Pitt,^ Fox's rival and his equal as an orator and 
statesman, became prime minister at twenty-four years of 
age; his policy controlled the government for eighteen 
years (1783-1801). 

IV. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 

Louis XV. (1715-74) was only five years old at the 
death of his great-grandfather, the Grand Monarch. The 



Cent Hvres Tourtwis. 



3^ A BimojCJE {)roinet payer aa Portetir a vue Cent livres Toumois 
en Emcees d'Argent, valeur re^eiie. A Paris le premier Jaiwier mil 




Bourgeois* 




FACSIMILE OF LAW'S PAPER MONEY. 

regency fell to the Duke of Orleans, — a man without honor 
or principle. The public debt was enormous, and the gov- 
ernment had no credit. To meet the emergency, Orleans 
adopted the project of John Law, an adventurer, and issued 
a vast amount of paper money upon the security of imagi- 

1 Pitt's character was unimpeachable. Thus, while his own income was but £300 
per year, a sinecure post with £3000 per annum became vacant, and, as he had the 
power of filling it, every one supposed he would appoint himself to the place. In- 
stead, he gave it to Col. Barr6, who was old and blind. When Pitt retired from the 
ministry he was poor (compare Aristides, Aoc. Peo., p. 135). 



1720.] 



THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 



231 




LOUIS XVI., MARIE ANTOINETTE, AND THE 
UAUPHIN, 



nary mines in Louisiana. But this Mississippi Bubble, like 
the South Sea Scheme (the same year) in England, bui'st in 
overwhelming ruin. 

An Era of Shame. — Louis 
early plunged into vice. The 
real rulers of France were his 
favorites, Madame de Pompa- 
dour, and later the Comtesse 
du Barri. The world had not 
seen such a profligate court 
since the days of the Roman 
emperors. The War of the 
Austrian Succession and the 
Seven- Years' War had de- 
prived France of vast posses- 
sions and added hundreds of millions to the already hopeless 
debt. Louis foresaw the coming storm, and, with Pompa- 
dour, repeated, "After me the deluge ; " yet he sanctioned 
the most iniquitous schemes to raise money for his vices, 
and silenced all opposition by the dungeons of the Bastile. 
LoTiis XVI. (1774-93), a good, well-meaning young 

man, but shy and wofully 
ignorant of public affaus, 
succeeded to this heritage 
of extravagance, folly, 
and crime, — a bankrupt 
treasury and a starving 
people. His wife, Marie 
Antoinette, daughter of 
Maria Theresa, though 
beautiful and innocent, 
was of the hated House 
of Austria, and her gay 




POUTltAlT OF TUUGOT. 



232 



THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 



[1774-89. 



met in 
May 5, 



thougMlessness added to 
the general discontent. 
Louis desired to redress 
the wi'ongs of the country, 
but he did not know how.^ 
Minister succeeded minis- 
ter, like shifting figures 
in a kaleidoscope. Turgot, 
Necker, Calonne, Brienne, 
Necker again, each tried in 
vain to solve the problem. 
As a last resort, the States- 
General — which had not 
a hundred and seventy-five years — was assembled, 
1789. It was the first day of the Revolution. 




PORTUAIT OF NECKER. 



The Condition of France at this time reveals many causes of the 
Revolution. The people were overwhelmed by taxation, while the 
nobility and clergy, who owned two thirds of the land, were nearly 
exempt. The taxes were ''farmed out," i. e., leased, to persons who 
retained all they could collect over the specified amount. The unhappy 
tax-payers were treated with relentless severity, to swell the profits of 
these farmers-general. Each family was compelled to buy a certain 
amount of salt, whether needed or not. The laws were enacted by 
those who considered the common people born for the use of the higher 
class. Justice could be secured only by bribery or political influence. 
Men were sent to prison without trial or charges, and kept there till 
death. When the royal treasury needed replenishing, a restriction of 
trade was imposed, and licenses were issued for even the commonest 
callings. The peasants were obliged to labor on roads, bridges, etc., 
without pay. In some districts every farmer had thus been ruined. 
Large tracts of land were declared game-preserves, where wild boars 
and deer roamed at pleasure. The power given to the noble over 
the peasants living on his estate was absolute. Lest the young game 
might be disturbed or its flavor impaired, the starving peasant could 
neither weed his little plot of ground nor suitably enrich it. He must 
grind his corn at the lord's mill, bake his bread in the lord's oven, and 

1 A princess of the royal family, being told that the people liart no bread, ex- 
claimed in all simplicity, "Then why not give them cake!" 



THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 



233 




FRENCH FAGOT-VEXDEK (18TH CENTURY). 



press his grapes at the lord's 
wine-press, paying whatever 
price the lord might charge. 
When the wife of the seigneur 
was ill, the peasants were ex- 
pected to beat the neighboring 
marshes all night, to prevent the 
frogs from croaking, and so dis- 
turbing the lady's rest. French 
agriculture had not advanced be- 
yond that of the 10th century, 
and the plow in use might have 
belonged to Virgil's time. To 
complete the picture of rural 
wretchedness, one hundred and 
fifty thousand serfs were bought 
and sold with the land on which 
they were born. 

The strife between classes had 
awakened an intense hatred. 
The nobles not only placed their haughty feet on the necks of the 
peasants, but also spoke contemptuously of the opulent merchants, and 
artisans. In turn, the wealthy merchants hated and despised the spend- 
thrift, dissolute, arrogant hangers-on at court, whose ill-gotten revenues 
were far below their own incomes from business. 

A boastful skepticism prevailed, and all 
that is amiable in religion or elevating in 
morals was made a subject of ridicule. 
The writings of Rousseau, Voltaire, Hel- 
vetius, Diderot, and other infidels, with 
their brilliant and fascinating theories of 
liberty, weakened long-cherished truths, 
mocked at virtue, and made men restive 
under any restraint, human or divine. 

Democratic ideas were rife. Despotism 
was unendurable to men who had imbibed 
the new principles of liberty, and especially 
to those who, like La Fayette (Hist. U. S., 
pp. 119, 127), had helped the United States 
to win its freedom. Louis XVI. might 
have delayed, but could not have averted, 
the impending catastrophe. The Revolution was but the blossoming 
of a seed planted long before, and of a plant whose slow and sure 
growth thoughtful men had watched for years. 




FEMALE HEAD-nKESS (1STH 
CENTURY). 



234 



THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 



[1789. 



1. ABOLITION OF THE MONAECHY. 

The National Assembly. — The tiers Hat, proving to 
be the most powerful body in the States-General, invited the 
nobles and clergy to join it, and declared itself the National 
Assembly.^ Lonis closed the hall ] whereupon the members 
repaired to a tennis court near by, and swore not to separate 
until they had given a constitution to France. Soon the 
king yielded, and at his request the coronets and miters 
met with the commons. To overawe the refractory Assem- 
bly, the court collected 30,000 soldiers about Versailles. 
The Paris Mob, excited by this menace to the people's 

representatives, rose in 
3^-^J^ arms, stormed the grim 
^ _ ^^ old Bastile,^ and razed 

its dungeons to the 
ground. The insm-- 
rection swept over the 
country like wild-fire. 
As in the days of the 
Jacquerie (p. 58), cha- 
teaux were bm^ned, and 
tax-gatherers tortured 
to death. Finally a 
maddened crowd, cry- 
ing " Bread, bread ! " surged out to Versailles, sacked the 
palace, and, in savage glee, brought the royal family to Paris. 
Various political clubs began to get control. Chief of these 
were the Jacobin and the Cordelier (Brief Hist. France, 
p. 206), whose leaders — Robespierre, Marat, and Danton — 
preached sedition and organized the Revolution. 

1 Thi8 step is said to have been taken by tlie advice of Tliomas Jefferson, our 
minister plenipotentiary to France. 

2 Its key, given by La Fayette to Wasliington, is preserved at Mouut Vernon. 




THE BASTILE. 



1789.] 



THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 



28f 



Reforms (1789-91 ).i — The Assembly, in a furor of pa- 
triotism, extiiiguislied feudal privileges, abolished serfdom, 
and equalized taxation. The law of primogeniture was ab- 




SCENE IN PAKIS AFTEK THE STORMING OF THE BASTILE. 

rogated ; titles were annulled ; liberty of conscience and of 
the press was proclaimed; and France was divided into 
eighty-three departments instead of the old provinces. 

1 " It -was plain that the First Estate must bow its proud head before the five and 
twenty savage millions, make restitution, speak well, smile fairly— or die. The 
memorable 4th of August came, wlien the nobles did this, making ample confes-sion 
of tlieir weakness. The Viscomte de Noailles proposed to reform the taxation by 
subjecting to it every order and rank; by regulating it according to the fortune of 
the individual ; and by abolishing personal servitude and every remaining vestige 
of the feudal system. An enthusiasm, which was half fear and half reckless excite- 
ment, spread throughout the Assembly. The aristocrats rose in their places and 
publicly renounced their seignorial dues, privileges, and immunities. The clergy 
abolished tithes and tributes. The representative bodies resigned their municipal 
rights. All this availed little; it should have been done months before to have 
weighed with the impatient commons. The people scorned a generosity which 
relinquished only that which was untenable, and cared not for the recognition of a 
political equality that had already been established with the pike " (Miss Edwards's 
History of France). 



236 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. [1791. 

The estates of the clergy were confiscated, and upon this 
security notes (assignats) were issued to meet tlie expenses 
of the government.^ Having adopted a constitution, the 
Assembly adjoui*ned, and a new body was chosen, called 

The Legislative Assembly (1791).— The mass of its 
members were ignorant and brutal. The most respectable 
were the Gu-ondists, who professed the simphcity and exalted 
virtue of the old Roman republic. The Jacobins, Cordeliers, 
and other violent demagogues, were fused by a common 
hatred of the king into one bitter, opposing party. 

Attack upon the Tuileries. — Austria and Prussia now 
took up arms in behalf of Louis, and invaded France. This 
sealed the fate of monarch and monarchy. Louis was known 
to be in correspondence with the princes and the French 
nobles who had joined the enemy. The approach of the 
allies, and especially the threats of the Prussian general, 
kindled the fury of the Parisian masses. The Gu-ondists 
made common cause with the Jacobins in stirring up the 
rabble to dethrone the king. The Marseillaise was heard 
for the first time in the streets of Paris. The palace of 
the Tuileries was sacked 5 the Swiss guards, faithful to the 
last, were slain ; and Louis was sent to prison. 

The Jacobins, now supreme, arrested all who opposed their 
revolutionary projects. The prisons being full, hired assas- 
sins went from one to another for four days of that terrible 
September, massacring the unhappy inmates. A thirst for 
blood seized the populace, and even women eagerly witnessed 
this carnival of murder. 

Battle of Valmy (1792). — In the midst of these events, 
the Prussian army was checked at Valmy; soon after, it re- 



1 About this time the frighteneci royal family attempted flight in disguise. When 
almost to the frontier, they were detected, and were brought back to the Tuileries, 
to be watched more closely than ever (Brief Hist. France, p. 207). 



1792.] 



THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 237 



crossed the frontier. The victory of Jemmapes over the Aus- 
trians followed, and Belgium was proclaimed a republic. 

The Effect of these successes was electrical. The leaders 
of the Revolution were elated, and the nation was encoui-aged 
to enter upon a career of conquest that ultimately shook the 
continent of Europe. 

The National Convention. — The next Assembly estab- 
lished a repubhc. "Louis Capet/' as they styled the king, 
was arraigned, and, in spite of the timid protest of the 
Girondists, was condemned and guillotined (1793). His 
head fell amid savage shouts of "Vive la Republique ! '' 

2. THE REIGN OF TERROR (1793-94). 

Jacobin Rule. — Nearly all Europe leagued to avenge 
Louis's death. England was the soul of this coahtion, and 
freely gave to it her gold and arms. The royalists held 
Marseilles, Bordeaux, Lyons, and Toulon. An insurrection 
burst out in La Vendee. But the terrible energy of the 
convention crushed all opposition. Its Committee of Public 
Safety knew neither fear nor pity. Revolutionary tribunals 
were set up, before which were dragged those suspected of 
moderation or of sympathy with the " aristocrats." Every 
morning the tumbrils carried to execution the victims of 
the day. The crowd screamed with delight as Marie Antoi- 
nette, ^ prematurely gray, mounted the scaffold on which her 
husband had perished. The Girondists were overwhelmed 
in the ruin they had aided in creating. At Lyons the work 
of the guillotine proved too tedious, and the \dctims were 
mowed down by grape-shot; at Nantes boat-loads were 
rowed out and sunk in the Loire. 

1 Her little son, " Louis XVII.." died after two years of horrible suffering in prison 
(Brief Hist. France, p. 216). Romance lias pictured this "Lost Dauphin" as saved 
and secretly conveyed to America. 



238 



THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 



[1793. 



In the midst of the carnage a new calendar was instituted, to date 
from September 22, 1792, which was to be the first day of the year 1, 
the epoch of the foundation of the republic. New names were given 
to the months and days ; Sunday was abolished, and every tenth 
day appointed for rest and amusement. Christian worship was pro- 
hibited. Churches and convents were desecrated, plundered, and 
burned. Marriage was declared to be only a civil contract, which 
might be broken at pleasure. Notre Dame was converted into a 
Temple of Reason, and a gaudily dressed woman, wearing a red cap of 
liberty, was enthroned as goddess. Over the entrance to the ceme- 
teries were inscribed the words : Death is an eternal sleep. 




GIRONDISTS ON THE WAY TO EXECUTION. 



Fate of the Terrorists. — Marat had already perished 
—stabbed by Charlotte Corday, a young girl who gladly 
gave up her life to rid her country of this monster. Danton 
now showing signs of relenting, his ruthless associates 
sent him to the scaffold. For nearly four dreadful months 
Robespierre ruled supreme. He aimed to destroy all the 
other leaders. The ax plied faster than ever as he went 



1794.] 



THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 



239 




KOUESPIERHE. 



on "purging society" by mur- 
der. The accused were forbid- 
den defense, and tried en masse} 
At last, impelled by a common 
fear, friends and foes combined 
to overthrow the tyrant. A fu- 
rious struggle ensued. When 
Robespierre's head fell (July 
28, 1794), the Reign of Terror 
ended. 

A Reaction now set in. 
The revolutionary clubs were 
abolished; the prison doors 

were flung wide ; the churches were opened ; the surviving 
Girondists were recalled, and the emigrant priests and 
nobles invited to return. 

Triumph of the French Arms (1794-95).— While the 
Terrorists were sending long lines of victims to the scaffold, 
the defenders of the new republic were pouring toward the 
threatened frontiers. During the pauses of the guillotine, all 
Paris accompanied the troops outside the city gates, shout- 
ing the Marseillaise. Pichegru, Hoche, Jourdan, and Moreau 
led the republican armies to continued success. The royal- 
ists in La Vendee were routed, Belgium was overrun, and 
the Rhine held from Worms to Nimeguen. Even winter 
did not stop the progress of the French arms. Pichegru 
led his troops across the Meuse upon the ice, and, conquering 
Holland without a battle, organized the Batavian Uepublic. 
Peace was made with Prussia and Spain, but England and 
Austria continued the war. 



1 In the national arcliives of Paris, there is preserved an order of execution 
which was signed in blank, and afterward filled up with the names of twenty-seven 
persons, one of whom was a boy of sixteen. 



240 



THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 



[1795. 



Establishment of the Directory. — It had become 

apparent that the 
union in one legis- 
lative house of the 
three orders in the 
States-General was 
a mistake. It was 
therefore decided 
to have a Council of 
Five Hundred to 
propose laws, and 
a Council of the An- 
cients to pass or to 
reject them. The 
executive power was 
to be lodged in a Directory of five persons. 

The Day of the Sections (October 5, 1795).— The Con- 
vention, in order to secure its work, decreed that two thii-ds 
of each council should be appointed from its own number. 
Thereupon the royalists excited the Sections (as the munici- 
pal divisions of Paris were called) to rise in arms. General 
Barras (ra), who was in command of the defense, caUed to 
his aid Napoleon Buonaparte.^ Tliis young officer skillfully 




COSTUMES OF THE THUEE OKDEKS. 



1 Napoleon Buonaparte was born at Ajaccio, Corsica, August 15, 1769, two months 
after the conquest of that island by the French. (It is claimerl, however, that, not wlsli- 
iug to be foreign-born, he changed tlie date of his birth.) His father, Charles Buona- 
parte, was a law- 
yer of straitened 
means. We read 
that when tlie fu- 
ture soldier was a 
child his favorite 
plaything was a 
small brass can- 
non, and that he 
loved to drill the 
children of the 



FACSIMILE OF THE SIGNATURE OF NAPOLEON liUONAPAKTE, 
MUSEE DES ARCHIVES NATIONALES, PAKIS. 

neighborhood to battle with stones and wooden sabers. At ten he was sent to the 



1795.] 



THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 



241 



posted his troops about the Tuileries, and planted cannon 
to rake the approaches. His pitiless guns put the insurgents 
to flight, leaving five hundred of their number on the pave- 
ment. The people were subdued. Their master had come, 
and street tumults were at an end. 



DIRPJCTORY. 



The Glory of the 

Directory lay in the 
achievements of its sol- 
diers. Napoleon Buona- 
parte, though only twen- 
ty-six years old, was put 
at the head of the army 
which was to invade 
Italy, then defended by 
the Austrian and Pied- 
montese armies. Hence- 
forth, for nearly twenty 
years, his life is the his- 
tory of France, almost 
that of Europe. 

Italian Campaign (1796-97). — Buonaparte found at 
Nice a destitute French army of thirty-eight thousand 




NAPOLEON BUONAPARTE. 



military school at Brienne. Resolute, quarrelsome, gloom}', not much liked by 
liis companions, he lived apart; but he was popular with his teachers, and became 
the head scholar in mathematics. At sixteen he went to Paris to complete his 
studies. Poor and proud, discontented with his lot, tormented by the lirst stirrings 
of genius, he became a misanthrope. He entered the army as lieutenant, and first 
distinguished himself during the siege of Toulon. By skillfully planting liis batteries, 
he drove off the English fleet and forced the surrender of that city. A few days 
after the disarming of the Sections, Eugene Beauharnais, a boy of ten j'ears, came 
to Buonaparte to claim the sword of his father, who had fallen on the scaffold during 
the Revolution. Touched by his tears, Buonaparte ordered the sword to be given 
him. This led to a call from Madame de Beauharnais. The bt-auty, wit, and grace 
of the Creole widow won the heart of the Corsican general. Their mutual friend, 
Barras, promised them as a marriage gift Buonaparte's appointment to the com- 
mand of the army of Italy. 



242 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. [1796. 

men, while in front was a well-equipped army numbering 
sixty thousand. But he did not hesitate. Issuing one of 
those electrical proclamations for which he was afterward so 
famous, he suddenly forced the passes of Montenotte, and 
pierced the center of the enemy's line. He had now placed 
himself between the Piedmontese and the Austrians, and 
could foUow either. He pursued the former to within ten 
leagues of Tui-in, when the King of Sardinia, trembling for 
his crown and capital, stopped the conqueror by an armis- 
tice, which was soon converted into a peace, giving up to 
France his strongholds and the passes of the Alps. 

Battle of Lodi. — Dehvered from one foe, Buonaparte 
turned upon the other. At Lodi he found the Austrians 
strongly intrenched upon the opposite bank of the Adda. 
Charging at the head of his grenadiers, amid a tempest of 
shot and ball, he crossed the bridge and bayoneted the 
cannoneers at their guns. The Austrians fled for refuge 
into the Tyi-ol Mountains. 

Authorized Pillage. — Then commenced a system of 
spoliation unknown to modern warfare. Not only was war 
to support war, but also to enrich the victor. Contributions 
were le\ded upon the vanquished states. A body of savants 
was sent into Italy to select the treasures of art from each 
conquered city. The Pope Avas forced to give twenty-one 
millions of francs, one hundred pictures, and five hundred 
manuscripts. The wants of the army were supplied, and 
millions of money forwarded to Paris. The officers and com- 
missioners seized provisions, horses, etc., paying nothing. 
A swarm of jobbers, contractors, and speculators hovered 
about the army, and gorged themselves to repletion. The 
Italians, weary of the Austrian yoke, at first welcomed the 
French, but soon found that their new masters, who came 
as brothers, plundered them like robbers. 



1796.] 



THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 



243 



Battles of Castiglione and Bassano. — Sixty thousand Aiis- 
trians, under Wurmser, were now marching in separate divi- 
sions on opposite sides of Lake Garda, in order to envelop 
the French in their superior numbers. Buonaparte first 
checked the force on the western bank, then routed the main 
body at Castiglione. Wurmser fell back into the Tyrol. 




BUONAFAUTE AT THE BKIUGE OF ARCOLE. 



Reenforced, he made a new essay. But ere he could debouch 
from the passes, Buonaparte plunged into the gorges of the 
mountains, and defeated him again at Bassano. 

Battle of Arcole. — Two Austrian armies had disappeared ; 
a third now arrived under Alvinczy. Leaving Verona with 



244 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. [1796. 

only fourteen thousand men, Buonaparte took the road for 
Milan. It was the route to France. Suddenly turning to 
the north, he descended the Adige, crossed the river, and 
placed his army in the midst of a marsh traversed only by 
two causeways. Fighting on these narrow roads, numbers 
were of no account. At the bridge of Arcole, Buonaparte, 
seeing his grenadiers hesitate, seized a banner, and exclaim- 
ing, "Follow your general," rushed forward. Borne back 
in the arms of his soldiers, during the melee he fell into the 
marsh, and was with difficulty rescued. A ford was finally 
found and the bridge was turned. A fearful struggle of 
tliree days ensued, when the Austrians, liaK destroyed, were 
put to flight. 

Battle of RivoU. — Alvinczy, reenforced, again descended 
into Italy. The principal army advanced in two columns, — 
the infantry in one, and the cavahy and artillery in the other. 
Buonaparte saw that the only point where they could unite 
was on the plateau of Rivoh. As they debouched, he 
launched upon them Joubert, and then Massena.i Both of 
the enemy's columns recoiled in inextricable confusion. 

Having vanquished three imperial armies in Italy, Buona- 
parte next crossed the Alps, and advanced upon Vienna. 
The Austrian government, in consternation, asked for a sus- 
pension of arms. 

The Treaty of Campo Formio (1797) closed this famous 
campaign. Belgium was ceded to France, mth the long- 
coveted boundary of the Rhine. Austria was allowed to 
take Venice and its dependencies. 

Neighboring Republics. — The Directory endeavored 
to control the neighboring states as if they were French 

1 Mass6na's division fought at Verona on the 13th of January, marched all that 
night to help Joubert, who was exhausted by forty-eiglit hours' iiglitiug, was in the 
battle of Rivoli tlie 14th, and marched tliat night and the 15tli to reach Mantua on the 
16th. Marches, which witli ordinary generals were merely the movements of troops, 
with Buonaparte meant battles, and often decided the fate of a campaign. 



1798.] 



THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 



245 



provinces; to change their form of government; and to 
exact enormous contributions. At the close of 1798 the 
Directory found itself at the head of no less than six re- 
publicSj including Holland, Switzerland, and Italy. 




THE PYRAMIDS OF EGYPT. 



An Expedition to Egypt (1798-99) having been pro- 
posed by Buonaparte, and accepted by the Directory, the 
conqueror of Italy, eager for new triumphs, set sail with 
thirty-six thousand men, — the heroes of Rivoli and Arcole. 
On his way he captured Malta, but narrowly escaped the 
English cruisers under Nelson. Landing near Alexandria,! 
Buonaparte at once pushed on to Cairo, defeating the Mame- 
lukes under the shadow of the Pyramids.^ But oon after 
Nelson annihilated the French fleet in the Bay of Aboukir. 
Cut off thus from Europe, Buonaparte, dreaming of found- 
ing an empire in the East and overthrowing the British rule 
in India, turned into Syria. The walls of Acre, however, 
manned by English sailors under Sidney Smith, checked 
his progress; and, after defeating the Turks with terrible 



1 During this occupation of Egypt, a Frencli engineer discovered the Rosetta 
stone,— the key to reading the Egyptian hieroglyphics (Anc. Peo., p. 22). 

2 " Soldiers ! ' exclaimed Buonaparte, " from yonder pyramids forty centuries look 
down upon you." 



246 



THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 



[1798. 



slaughter at the foot of Mount Tabor, he retreated across 
the desert to Egypt. There he secretly abandoned his army, 
and returned to France. 

At Paris he was gladly welcomed. " Then- Five Majes- 
ties of the Luxemburg/' as the Directors were styled, had 
twice resorted to a coup 
(Vetaf,^ to preserve their 
authority in the Coun- 
cils. Foreign disgrace 
had been added to do- 




BUONAPAHTE BEFORE THE COUNCIL OF FIVE HUNDRED. 

mestic anarchy. A Second Coalition (composed of England, 
Austria, Russia, etc.) having been formed against France, 
the fruits of Campo Formio had been quickly lost. The 
French armies, forced back upon the frontier, were in want. 
A panic of fear seized the people. The hero of Italy offered 
the only hope. A new coup d'etat was planned. Buona- 



1 This i8 a word for which as yet happily, we have no Eugliah equivalent. It is 
literally " a stroke-of -state." 



1799.] THE CIVILIZATION. 247 

parte's grenadiers drove the members of the Council of Five 
Hundi'ed from their chamber, as Cromwell's soldiers had 
driven the Long Parhament a century and a half before. 
The roll of the drums drowned the last cry of " Vive la 
EepnUique.^^ 

A new Constitution was now adopted. The government 
was to consist of a Council of State, a Tribune, a Legisla- 
ture, a Senate, and three Consuls, — Buonaparte and two 
others named by him. In February, 1800, the First Consul 
took up his residence in the Tuileries. The Revolution had 
culminated in a despot. 

THE CIVILIZATION. 

The Progress of Letters. — Queen Anne's reign was the Augustan 
age of English Literature. Questions of party polities, society, life, 
and character were discussed; and wit, ridicule, and satire were 
employed as never before. The affluence of the old school of authors 
gave way to correctness of form and taste. Pope's * ' Essay on Man " and 
''Essay on Criticism," with their "sonorous couplets brilliant with an- 
tithesis," are yet admired. Swift's ''Gulliver's Travels" satirized the 
manners and customs of the time. Addison and Steele, in their peri- 
odicals the "Tatler" and the " Spectator," popularized literature, and 
" brought philosophy," as Steele expressed it, " out of libraries, schools, 
and colleges, to dwell in clubs, at tea tables, and in coffee-houses." 
The style of Addison was long considered a model of graceful, elegant 
prose. De Foe's ' ' Robinson Crusoe " still charms the heart of every boy. 

Samuel Johnson, with his ponderous periods, is to us the principal 
figure of English literature from about the middle of the 18th century. 
In his ' ' English Dictionary " he was the first author who appealed for 
support directly to the public, and not to some great man. He estab- 
lished a realm of letters, and long held in London a literary court in which 
he ruled as undisputed king. Literature had begun to take its present 
form ; newspapers commenced to play a part ; a new class of men arose, 
— the journalists ; and authorship assumed fresh impulses on every hand. 
Richardson, Fielding, and Smollett laid the foundation of the modern 
novel. Thompson's "Seasons," Gray's " Elegy in a Country Church- 
yard," Goldsmith's "Traveler" and "The Deserted Village," Cowper's 
"Task," and Burns's "The Cotter's Saturday Night," were familiar 
stepping-stones in the progress of poetry into a new world, that of 



248 



THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 



nature. Burke, by his sounding sentences and superb rhetoric, made 
the power of letters felt by every class in society, Hume wrote the 
"History of England;" and Robertson, that of Charles V., — the first 
literary histories in our language. Gibbon's "Decline and Fall of the 
Roman Empire " elevated historical study to the accuracy of a scientific 
treatise. Adam Smith's " Wealth of Nations" founded the science of 
political economy. 




In France, the 18th century was preeminently an age of infidelity 
and skepticism. Voltaire, Rousseau, Montesquieu, as well as Diderot, 
D'Alembert, and the other liberal thinkers who wrote upon the En- 
cyclopaedia, while they urged the doctrines of freedom and the natural 
rights of man, recklessly assaulted time-honored creeds and institutions. 

In Germany, the efforts of Lessing, Winckelmanu. Klopstock, and 
other patriots, had created a reaction against Frencli infiuence. The 
" Twin Sons of Jove," as their countrymen liked to call them, — Schiller, 
with his impassioned lyrics, and Goethe, one of the profoundest poets 
of any age or country, — elevated German literature to a classical per- 
fection. The philosophical spirit gathered strength from this triumph, 
and gave birth to those four great teachers — Kant, Fichte, Hegel, and 
Schelling — who afterward laid the foundation of German metaphysics. 

Both the French and the German waiters exerted a powerful effect 
upon England, and, from the dawn of the French Revolution far into 
the 19th century, produced a remarkable outburst of literature. The 



THE CIVILIZATION, 249 

philosophic mind finds congenial emplojonent in tracing their respec- 
tive influence upon the writings of Scott, Wordsworth, Coleridge, 
Southey, Moore, Shelley, and Byron, — all of whom burned to redress 
the wrongs of man, and dreamed of a golden ago of human perfection. 

Science now spread so rapidly on every side, that one strains his 
eyes in vain to trace the expanding stream. Chemistry took on its pres- 
ent form. Black discovered carbonic-acid gas ; Cavendish, hydrogen 
gas ; Priestley and Scheele, oxygen gas ; and Rutherford, the properties 
of nitrogen gas. Lavoisier proved that respiration and combustion are 
merely forms of oxidation, and he was thus able to create an orderly 
nomenclature for the science. Physics was enriched by Black's dis- 
covery of the latent heat of melting ice. Franklin, experimenting with 
his kite, imprisoned the thunderbolt. Galvani, seeing the twitching of 
some frogs' legs that were hanging from iron hooks, found out the mys- 
terious galvanism. Volta invented a way of producing electricity by 
chemical action, and of carrying the current through a wire both ends of 
which were connected with the battery. Dollond invented the achro- 
matic lens that gives the value to our telescope and microscope. Fah- 
renheit, Reaumur, and Celsius first marked off the degrees upon the 
thermometer (Steele's Popular Physics, p. 249), thus furnishing an 
instrument of precision. In Astronomy, Lagrange proved the self-regu- 
lating, and therefore permanent, nature of the orbits of the planets ; 
Laplace, in his ''Mecanique Celeste," developed Newton's theory of 
gravitation, and explained the anomalies in its application ; and finally, 
Herschel, with his wonderful telescope, detected a planet (Uranus, see 
Steele's Astronomy, p. 189) called for by this law, and in the cloudy 
nebulse found the workings of this same universal force. Natural 
History was popularized by Buff on, who gathered many new facts, and 
detected the influence of climate and geography upon the distribution 
of animals. Lamarck began to lay the foundation of the theory of 
evolution. Cuvier found out the relation of the different parts of an 
animal, so that from a single bone he could restore the entire structure. 
Hutton taught how, by watching the changes now going on in the 
earth's crust, we may detect nature's mode of making the world, or 
the science of Geology. Linnaeus, by the system still called from his 
name, gave to Botany its first orderly arrangement. 

Progress of Invention.— In 1705, Newcomen and Cawley patented 
in England the first steam-engine worth the name ; and James Watt 
in 17G5 invented the condenser that, with other improvements, rendered 
this machine commercially successful. The application of steam 
power to machinery w^rought a revolution in commerce, manufac- 
tures, arts, and social life, and immensely aided in the progress of civil- 
ization. The difference between the mechanical workmanship of the 
18th and 19th centuries may be seen in the almost incredible fact that 
Watt, in making his first engine, found his greatest difficulty from the 



250 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 

impossibility of boring, with the imperfect tools then in use, a cylinder 
that was steam-tight. Before the end of the century, several trial steam- 
boats were made, both in Europe and in America, and ere long, as every 
schoolboy knows, Fulton regularly navigated the Hudson. 

Until the 16th century, spinning was done by the distaff, as it had 
been from Homer's time. The spinning-wheel of our ancestors was 
the first improvement. Hargreaves, about 1767, combined a number of 
spindles in the spinning-jenny (so named after his wife). Arkwi'ight 
soon after patented the spinning-mill driven by water ; and in 1779 
Crompton completed the mule, or carriage for winding and spinning. 
In 1787, Cartwright invented the power-loom. Eli Whitney, six years 
later, made the cotton-gin. Such was the impetus given to cotton rais- 
ing and manufacture by these inventions, that, while in 1784 an invoice 
of eight bags of cotton was confiscated at Liverpool on the ground that 
cotton was not a product of the United States, fifty years afterward we 
sent to England 220,000,000 pounds of cotton. 

ENGLAND A HUNDRED YEARS AGO. 

The Law recognized two hundred and twenty-three capital crimes. 
For stealing to the value of five shillings, for shooting at rabbits, or 
for cutting down young trees, the penalty was death. Traitors were 
cut in pieces by the executioner, and their heads exposed on Temple 
Bar to the derision of passers-by. Prisoners were forced to buy from 
the jailer (who had no salary) their food, and even the straw upon which 
to lie at night. They were allowed to stand, chained by the ankle, out- 
side the jail, to sell articles of their own manufacture. Thus, John Bun- 
yan sold cotton lace in front of Bedford prison. The grated windows 
were crowded by miserable wretches begging for alms. Many innocent 
persons were confined for years because they could not pay their jail 
fees. In 1773, Howard began his philanthropic labors in behalf of pris- 
on reform, but years elapsed before the evils he revealed were corrected. 
On the Continent, torture was still practiced ; the prisons of Hanover, 
for example, had machines for tearing off the hair of the convict. 

A General Coarseness and Brutality existed in society. Mas- 
ters beat their servants, and husbands their wives. Profanity was 
common with ladies as well as gentlemen. Lawyers swore at the bar ; 
judges, on the bench ; women, in their letters ; and the king, on his 
throne. No entertainment was complete unless the guests became 
stupidly drunk. Children of five years of age were habitually put 
to labor, and often driven to their work by blows. In mines women 
and children, crawling on their hands and feet in the darkness, dragged 
wagons of coal fastened to their waists by a chain. Military and naval 
discipline was maintained by the lash, and in the streets of every sea- 
port the press-gang seized and carried off by force whom it pleased, 
to be sailors on the men-of-war. 



SUMMARY. 251 

London Streets were lighted' only in winter and nntil midnight, 
by dim oil-lamps. The services of a link-boy with his blazing torch 
were needed to light one home after dark, since footpads lurked at the 
lonely corners, and, worst of all, bands of aristocratic young men (known 
as Mohocks, from the Mohawk Indians) sauntered to and fro, overturn- 
ing coaches, pricking men with their swords, rolling women down-hill 
in a barrel, and sometimes brutally maiming their victims for life. 

In the Country the roads were so bad that winter traveling was 
well-nigh impossible. The stage-coach (with its armed guards to pro- 
tect it from highwaymen), rattling along in good feather at four miles 
per hour, was considered a wonderful instance of the progress of the 
times. Lord Campbell accomplished the journey from Edinburgh to 
London in three days ; but his friends warned him of the dangers of 
such an attempt, and gravely told him of persons venturing it who had 
died from the very rapidity of the motion. Each town dwelt apart, 
following its own customs, and knowing little of the great world outside. 
There were villages so secluded that a stranger was considered an 
enemy, and the inhabitants set their dogs upon him. Each house- 
holder in the country grew his own wool or flax, which his wife and 
daughters colored with dyes of their own gathering, and spun, wove, 
and made into garments themselves. 

Education. — In all England there were only about three thousand 
schools, public and private, and, so late as 1818, half of the children 
grew up destitute of education. The usual instruction of a gentleman 
was very superficial, consisting of a little Latin, less Greek, and a good 
deal of dancing. Female education was even more deplorable, and 
at fourteen years of age the young lady was taken out of school and 
plunged into the dissipations of fashionable society. Newspapers 
were taxed fourpence each copy, mainly to render them too costly for 
the poor, and so to restrain what was considered their evil influence 
upon the masses. 

SUMMARY. 

The 18th was the century of Marlborough, Peter the Great, Charles 
XII., Maria Theresa, William Pitt, the Georges, Louis XVI., Marie An- 
toinette, Robespierre, Buonaparte, Addison, Steele, Swift, Pope, Sam- 
uel Johnson, Gibbon, Burns, Burke, Voltaire, Goethe, Schiller, Kant, 
Canova, Handel, Mozart, Cuvier, Franklin, Laplace, Lavoisier, Gal- 
vani, Herschel, Arkwright, Watt, and Whitney. It saw the Wars of 
the Spanish and of the Austrian Succession ; the Seven- Years' War ; 
the rise of Russia and of Prussia ; the American Revolution ; the Par- 
tition of Poland ; and the opening of the French Revolution, — includ- 
ing the execution of Louis XVI., the Reign of Terror, and Buonaparte's 
Italian and Egyptian Campaigns. 



252 



THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 



READING REFERENCES. 

The General Modern Histories named on p. 123, and the Special Histories of Eng- 
land, France, Germany, etc., on p. 112.— Lec/cy's England in the isth Century.— Alli- 
son's History of Europe (Tory standpoint).— Voltaire's Peter the Great, and Charles 
XII.— Schuyler's Peter the Great (Scribner's Magazine, Vol. XXD.—Carlyle's 
Frederick the Great.— Longman's Frederick the Great and the Seveii- Years' War.— 
Lacretelle's History of France during the ISth Century.— De Tocquevillc' s France 
before the Revolution.— The French Revolution {Epochs of History Series. Tlie Ap- 
pendix of this book contains an excellent resume of reading on this subject, by Andrew 
D. White).— Lamartine's History of the Girondists.— Carlyle's, Mignet's, Macfarlane's, 
Readhead's, Michelet's, Ij^iers's, and Von Sybel's Histories of the French Revolution. 
—Lanfrey's History of Napoleon.— Burke' s Reflections on the French Revolution.— 
Lewis's Life of Robespierre.— Adams's Democracy and Monarchy in France (excellent 
and discriminating).— Dickens's Tale of Two Cities (fiction).- Thiers' s Consulate and 
Empire.— Memoirs of Madame Campan, and of Madame Roland.— Erkmann-Cha- 
trian's Blockade, Conscript, Waterloo, etc. (fiction).— Abbott's, HazlitVs, Scott's, and 
Jomini's Life of Napoleon.— Russel's Essay on the Cause of the French Revolution.— 
3fackintosh's Defense of the French Revolution.— Napier' s Peninsular War.—Kav- 
anagh's Woman in France.— Daviess Recollections of Society in France.— Challice's 
Illustrious Women of France.— Citoyenne Jacqueline, or a Wom,an's Lot in the French 
Revolution.— Madame Junot's (the Duchesse d' Abrantes) Memoirs of Napoleon, his 
Court and Family.— Thackeray's The Four Georges.— 3Iadame de Remusat's Letters 
(Napoleon's character).— Memoirs of Prince Metternich (177^-IS'2.9). -Saint-Ainand's 
many historical works.— Amelia Gere Mason's Women of the French Salons. 



CHRONOLOGY. 



A. 1). 

Battles of Blenheim, Bamilles, 

Oudenarde, and Malplaquet 1704-09 

"Union of England and Scotland J707 

Battle of Pnltowa 1709 

Tieaty of Utreclit 1713 

Guelfs ascend English throne 1714 

Charles XI I. killed at Frederickshall 1718 

Frederick the Great, Age of 1740-86 

Seven -Years' War 1756-G3 

First Partition of Poland 1772 



A. D. 

American Hevolntion 1775-83 

Meeting of States-General 1789 

Attack on Tnileries, Aug. 10 1792 

Battle of Jemmapes 1792 

Louis XVI. guillotined, Jan. 21 1793 

Reign of Terror 1793-94 

Third Partition of Poland 1795 

Napoleon's Campaign in Italy 1796 

Battle of the Nile 1798 

Buonaparte First Consul 1799 



CONTEMPORARY SOVEREIGNS 



ENGLAND. 

William and 

Mary 1689 

Anne 1702 

George I 1714 

George II 1727 

George III 1760 



FRANCE 

Louis XIV 1643 

Louis XV. 1715 

Louis XVI 1774 

Repuhlic 1793 



GERMANY. 
Leopold I 1658 

Joseph I 1705 

Charles VI 1711 

Charles VII . . . 1742 

Francis 1 1745 

Joseph II 1765 

Leopold II 1790 

Francis II 1792 



PRUSSIA. 



Frederick I 1701 

William I 1713 



Frederick II... 1740 



William II 1786 

WiUiamlll...- 1797 



THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 253 

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 

I. FRANCE. 

FRENCH REVOLUTION (Continued) A— 4. THE CONSULATE (1800-04). 

Austrian War (1800). — England, regarding Buonaparte 
as a usurper, refused to make peace, and hostilities soon 
began. The First Consul was eager to renew the glories of 
his Italian campaign. Pouring his army over the Alps, he 
descended upon Lombardy like an avalanche. The Aus- 
trians, however, quickly rallied from then- surprise, and, 
unexpectedly attacking him upon the plain of Marengo, 
swept all before them. At this juncture Desaix, who with 
his division had hastened thither at the sound of cannon, 
dashed upon the advancing column, but fell in the charge. 
Just then, KeUerman, seeing the opportunity, hurled his 
terrible dragoons upon the flank of the column, and the 
Austrians broke and fled. 

Effect. — This single battle restored northern Italy to its 
conqueror. Meantime General Moreau had driven back the 
Austrian army in Germany step by step, and now, gaining 
a signal victory at HohenUnden, he pressed forward to the 
gates of the Austrian capital. The frightened monarch 
consented to 

The Treaty of Luneville, which was nearly like that of 
Campo Formio. England did not make peace until the 
next year, when Pitt's retirement from office paved the way 
to the Treaftj of Amiens (1802). 

Government. — " I shall now give myself to the adminis- 
tration of France," said Buonaparte. The opportunity for 
reorganization was a rare one. Feudal shackles had been 

1 The pupil will bear in mind that the French Revolution, whicli began in 
1789 (p. 232), lasted until the Restoration of the Bourbons in 1814-15, thus being 
the opening event of tlie nineteenth century. 



1802-06.] 



THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 



255 



thrown off, land had been set free, and the nation had per- 
fect confidence in its brilliant leader. Commerce, agricul- 
ture, manufactures, education, religion, arts, and sciences, — • 
each received his careful thought. He restored the Catholic 
Church in accord- 
ance with the cele- 
brated Concordat 
(1801), whereby 
the Pope re- 
nounced all claim 
to the lands con- 
fiscated by the 
Revolution, and 
the government 
agreed to provide 
for the mainte- 
nance of the clergy. He established a uniform system of 
weights and measures, known as the Metric System (1801). 
He fused the conflicting laws into what is still called the 
Napoleonic Code. He abolished the fantastic republican 
calendar (1806). He erected magnificent bridges across 
the Seine. He created the Legion of Honor, to reward 
distinguished merit. He repaired old roads and built new 
ones, among which was the magnificent route over the 
Simplon Pass into Italy, even now the wonder of travelers. 




THE TEMJfLE OF GLOUY. 



FRENCH REVOLUTION {Continued) .-b. THE EMPIRE (1804-14). 

Buonaparte becomes Emperor. — So general was the 
confidence inspired in France by Buonaparte's administra- 
tion, and so fascinated was the nation by his military achieve- 
ments, that, though he recklessly violated the liberties of the 
people and the rights of neighboring countries, when the 
senate proclaimed him Emperor Napoleon I., the popular 



256 



THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 



[1804. 



vote ratif}dng it showed only twenty-five hundred noes. At 
the coronation Pius VII. poui'ed on the head of the kneeling 
sovereign the mystic oil; but when he lifted the crown, 
Napoleon took it from his hands, placed it on his own head, 

and afterward crowned 
Josephine empress. As 
the hymn was sung 
which Charlemagne 

heard when saluted Em- 
peror of the Romans, 
the shouts within the 
waUs of Notre Dame 
reached the crowd with- 
out, and all Paris rung 
with acclamation. Cross- 
ing the Alps, the new 
emperor took at Milan 
the iron crown of the 
Lombards, and his step- 
son Eugene Beauharnais received the title Viceroy of Italy. 
The empire of Charlemagne seemed to be revived, with its 
seat at Paris instead of Aix-la-ChapeUe. 

Campaign of Austerlitz. — A Third Coalition (consist- 
ing of England, Austria, and Russia) was formed to resist 
the ambitious projects of " The Soldier of Fortune." Napo- 
leon, having already collected at Boulogne an admirably 
disciphned army and a vast fleet, threatened England. 
Learning that Austria had taken the field, he suddenly 
threw two hundred thousand men across the Rhine, sur- 
prised and captured the Austrian army at Ulm, and entered 
Vienna in triumph. Thence pressing forward, he met the 
Austro-Russian force, under the emperors Francis and 
Alexander, at the heights of 




EMi'liESS JUSEFHlMi. 



1805.] THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 257 

Austerlitz (1805). — With ill-concealed joy, in which his 
soldiers shared, he watched the allies marching their troops 
past the front of the French position in order to tnrn his 
right flank. Waiting until this ruinous movement was past 
recall, he suddenly launched his eager veterans upon the 
weakened center of the enemies' line, seized the plateau of 
Pratzen, — the key of their position, — isolated their left wing, 
and then cut up their entire army in detail. " The Sun of 
Austerlitz " saw the coaUtion go down in crushing def eat.^ 

Treat}/ of Presburg.—Mtev the ''Battle of the Three Em- 
perors," Francis came a supphant into the conqueror's tent. 
He secured peace at such a cost of territory that he sur- 
rendered the title of German emperor for that of Emperor 
of Austria (1806). Thus ended the Holy Roman Empire, 
which had lasted over a thousand years (p. 69). 

Battle of Trafalgar. — The day after the thunder- 
stroke at Ulm, Nelson, with the English squadron off Cape 
Trafalgar, annihilated the combined fleet of France and 
Spain. Henceforth Napoleon never contested with Eng- 
land the supremacy of the sea. 

Royal Vassals. — On land, however, after Austerlitz, no 
one dared to resist his will. To strengthen his power, he 
surrounded France with fiefs, after the manner of the mid- 
dle ages. Seventeen states of Germany were united in the 
Confederation of the Rhine, in close alliance with him. His 
brother Louis received the kingdom of Holland ; Jerome, 
that of Westphalia ; and Joseph, that of Naples. His brother- 
in-law Murat was assigned the grandduchy of Berg ; Marshal 
Berthier, the province of Neuchatel ; and Talleyrand, that of 
Benevento. Bernadotte was given Pontecorvo, but later 



1 When Pitt received the news of Austerlitz, he exclaimed, " Roll up the map of 
Europe: it will not be wanted these ten j'ears." Then, falling into a dying stupor, he 
^woke only to murmur, "Alas, my country ! " 



258 



THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 



[1806. 




he was allowed to 
accept the crown of 
Sweden. In all, over 
twenty principali- 
ties were distributed 
among his relatives 
and friends, w^ho 
were henceforth ex- 
pected to obey him 
as suzerain. 

War with Prus- 
sia (1806).— Prus- 
sia's humiliation was to come next. A Fourth Coalition 
(Prussia, Russia, England, etc.) had now been formed 
against France, but the Grand Army was still in Germany, 
and, before the Prussians could prepare for war. Napoleon 
burst upon them. In one day he annihilated their army 
at Jena and Anerstadt, and thus, by a single dreadful 
blow, laid the country prostrate at his feet. Amid the 



NAPOLEON AND JOSEPHINE AT ST. CLOUD. 



1806.] THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 259 

tears of the people, he entered Berlin, levied enormous 
contributions,^ plundered the museums, and even rifled the 
tomb of Frederick the Great. 

Berlin Decrees (1806). — Unable to meet England on 
the ocean. Napoleon determined to destroy her commerce, 
and issued at Berlin the famous decrees prohibiting British 
trade.^ The Continental System, as it was called, was, 
however, a failure. Napoleon had no navy to enforce it, 
and Enghsh goods were smuggled wherever a British vessel 
could float. It is said that Manchester prints were worn 
even in the Tuileries. 

War with Russia (1807). — Napoleon next hastened 
into Poland to meet the Russian army. The bloody battle 
of Eylau, fought amid blinding snow, was indecisive, but the 
victory of Friedland forced Alexander to sue for peace. The 
two emperors met upon a raft in the river Niemen. By the 
Treaty of Tilsit, they agreed to support each other in their 
ambitious schemes. 

Peninsular War. — Napoleon sought, also, to make 
Spain and Portugal subject to France. On the plea of en- 
forcing the Continental System, Junot was sent into Por- 
tugal, whereupon the royal family fled to Brazil. The 

1 To raise the amonnt, the women gave up their ornaments, aiirl wore rings of 
Berlin iron,— since then noted in the patriotic annals of Prnssia. "This coiintrj' fur- 
nislies a curious and perhaps unique example of a despotic monaichy forced by a 
despotism stronger than itself to seek defense in secret association. When Prussia 
lay crushed under the merciless tyranny of Napoleon, Baron Stein, the prime minis- 
ter, bethought him liow he could rouse the German spirit and unite the country 
against the invader. He devised the Tugendbund, or League of Virtue (1807), whicli 
spread rapidly over the country, and soon numbered in its ranks the flower of the 
people, including the very highest rank. Its organization and discipline were per- 
fect, and its authority was unbounded, although the source was veiled in the deepest 
secrecy. One of the motives b\^ which Stein kindled to white-heat tlie enthusiasm 
of the people was the hope of representative institutions and a free press; but the 
king did not hesitate to violate his royal promise when its purpose was served. The 
Tugendbund contributed powerfully to the resurrection of German national life in 
1813, an.l to the overthrow of Napoleon." 

2 They made smuggling a capital offense. A man was shot at Hamburg merely 
for having a little sugar in his house, 



260 THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. [1808. 

imbecile King of Spain being induced to abdicate, the 
Spanish crown was placed upon the head of Napoleon's 
brother Joseph, w^hile Naples was transferred to Murat. 

But Spain rebelled against the hated intruder. The entire 
kingdom blazed with fanatic devotion. More Frenchmen 
perished by the knife of the assassin than by the bullet of 
the soldier. Joseph kept his ill-gotten throne only eight 
days. The English, who now for the first time fought 
Napoleon on land, crossed into Portugal, and Sir Arthur 
Wellesley quickly expelled the French. 

Napoleon was forced to come to the rescue with the 
Grand Army. By three great battles he reached Madrid 
and replaced Joseph upon the throne, while Marshal Soult 
pursued the English army to the sea, where it took ship for 
home.^ 

War with Austria (1809).— A Fifth Coalition (England, 
Austria, Spain, and Portugal) having been organized to stay 
the progress of France, Austria took advantage of the ab- 
sence of the Grand Army in Spain, and opened a new cam- 
paign. Napoleon hurried across the Rhine, and in five days 
captui-ed sixty thousand prisoners, and drove the Austrians 
over the Danube. 

Battles of Aspern and Wagram. — But while the French 
were crossing the river in pursuit, the Austrian army fell 
ui)on them with terrible desperation. During the struggle 
the village of Aspern was taken and retaken fourteen times. 
Napoleon was forced to retreat. He at once summoned 
reenforcements from all parts of his vast dominions, and, 
recrossing the stream in the midst of a wild thunderstorm, 



1 The gallant Sir John Mooro, then in coramantl, was mortally wounded just 
before the embarkation. His body, wrapped in his military cloak, was hastily buried 
on the ramparts, 

"By the struggling moonbeam's misty light, 
And tlie lantern dimly burajng."— TTol/e'* 0<?e, 



1809.] 



THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 



261 



defeated the Austrians on the plain of Wagrani, and imposed 
the humiliating 

Peace of Vienna. — It exacted a large territory, a money- 
indemnity, adherence to the Continental System, and the 
blowing-np of the walls of Vienna, the favorite promenade 
of its citizens. 




THE BATTLE OF WAGUAM. 



The treaty was cemented by marriage. Napoleon divorced 
Josephine, and married Maria Louisa, daughter of Francis. 
But this alliance of the Soldier of the Revolution with 
the proud House of Hapsburg was distasteful to the other 
crowned heads of Europe, and unpopular in France. 

War in Spain (1809-12). — During the campaign in Aus- 
tria, over three hundred thousand French soldiers were in 



262 THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. [1809-12. 

Spain, but Napoleon was not there. Jealousies and the dif- 
ficulties of a guerilla warfare prevented success. Wellesley 
crossed the Douro in the face of Marshal Soult, and at last 
drove him out of the country.^ Joining the Spaniards, 
Wellesley then defeated Joseph in the great battle of 
Tula vera; but Soult, Ney, and Mortier having come up, he 
retreated into Portugal. 

The next year he fell back before the superior forces of 
Massena into the fortified lines of Torres Yedras. Massena 
remained in front of this impregnable position until starva- 
tion forced him to retire into Spain. His watchful antagonist 
instantly followed him, and it was only by consummate skill 
that the French captain escaped with the wreck of his army. 
The victories of Alhuera and Salamanca, and the capture of 
Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz, cost the French the peninsula 
south of Madrid. Joseph's throne was held up on the point 
of French bayonets. 

Russian Campaign (1812). — As the emperor Alexander 
refused to carry out the Continental System, Napoleon 
invaded that country with a vast army of over half a mil- 
lion men. But as he advanced, the Russians retu^ed, destroy- 
ing the crops and burning the villages. No longer could he 
make war support war. By incredible exertions, however, 
he pushed forward, won the bloody battle of Borodino, and 
finally entered Moscow. 

But the inhabitants had deserted the city, and the next 
night the Russians fired it in a thousand places. The 
blackened ruins furnished no shelter from the northern 
winter then fast approaching. Famine was already making 



1 Napoleon was accustomed to mass his men in a tremendous column of attack 
that crushed down all oijposition. Wellesley (now better known as tlie Duke of Wel- 
lington) believed that the English troops in tliin line of battle could resist this fearful 
onset. In the end, as we shall see (p. 267), Wellington's tactics proved superior to 
those of Napoleon. 



1812.] 



THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 



263 



sad havoc in the invader's ranks. The czar refused peace. 
Napoleon had no alternative but to retire. 

Retreat from Moscow. — The mercury suddenly fell to zero. 
The soldiers, unused to the rigors of the climate, sank 




COSSACKS HARASSING THE KETREATING ARMY. 



as they walked ; 
they perished if 
they stopped to 
rest. Hundi^edslay 
down by the fires 
at night, and never 
rose in the morn- 
ing. Wild Cossack 
troopers hovered about the rear, and, hidden by the gusts 
of snow, dashed down upon the blinded column, and with 
their long lances pierced far into the line ; then, ere the 
French with their stiffened fingers could raise a musket, the 
Tartars, dropping at full length on the backs of their ponies, 
vanished in the falling sleet. Napoleon finally gave up 
the command to Murat, and set off for Paris. All idea 



264 THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. [1812. 

of discipline was now lost. The army rapidly dissolved into 
a mass of straggling fugitives. 

Uprising of Europe (1813). — " The flames of Moscow 
were the funeral pyre of the empire." The yoke of the arro- 
gant usurper was thrown off on every hand when Eui'ope 
saw a hope of deliverance. 

A Sixth Confederation (Russia, Prussia, England, and 
Sweden) against French domination was quickly formed. 
Napoleon raised a new army of conscripts which defeated 
the allies at Liltzen,^ Bautzen, and Dresden. But where he 
was absent was failure ; while WeUington, flushed with vic- 
tory in Spain, crossed the Bidassoa, and set foot on French 
soil. And now Napoleon himself, in the terrible " Battle of 
the Nations," was routed under the waUs of Leipsic. Flee- 
ing back to Paris, he collected a handful of men for the 
final struggle. 

Invasion of France (1814). — Nearly a million of foes 
swarmed into France on all sides. Never did Napoleon dis- 
play such genius, such profound combinations, such fertility 
of resource. Striking, now here and now there, he held 
them back for a time ; but making a false move to the rear 
of the Austrian army, the allies ventured forward and cap- 
tured Paris. The fickle Parisians received them with de- 
hght. The people were weary of this hopeless butchery. 

Abdication of Napoleon. — Meanwhile Napoleon was 
breathlessly hastening to the defense of his capital. When 
only ten miles off, he received the fatal news. There was no 
hope of resistance, and he agreed to abdicate his throne. In 
the court of the palace at Fontainebleau he bade the veter- 
ans of the Old Guard an affecting adieu, and then set out for 
the Island of Elba, which had been assigned as his residence. 

1 A battle-field already famed for tlie death of Gustavus Adolphus (p. 177). 



1814.] 



FRANCE — THE RESTORATION. 



1. THE RESTORATION (1814). 



265 



Louis XVIII., brother of Louis XYI., was placed upon 
the throne. France resumed very nearly the boundaries of 
1792. The Bourbons^ however, had "learned nothing, for- 
gotten nothing." The nobles talked of reclaiming their 
feudal rights, and looked with insolent contempt upon the 
upstarts who had followed the fortunes of the Corsican ad- 
venturer. No wonder that people's thoughts again tui'ned 




NAPOLEON'S PAKTING WITH THE OLD GUARD AT FONTAINEBLEAU. 



toward Napoleon. Soon men spoke mysteriously of a cer- 
tain Corporal Violet who would come with the flowers of 
spring ; and violets bloomed significantly on ladies' hats. 

The Hundred Days (March 20-June 22, 1815).— Sud- 
denly the mystery was explained. Napoleon returned to 
France and hastened toward Paris. At Grenoble he met a 
body of troops drawn up to bar his advance. Wearing his 



266 THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. [1815. 

familiar gray coat and cocked hat, Napoleon advanced alone 
in front of the Une, and exclaimed, " Soldiers, if there be one 
among you who would kill his emperor, here he is." The men 
dropped their arms and shouted, "Fu'e VEmpereur! " ^ Ney 
had promised " to bring back the Corsican to Paris in an 
iron cage." But when he saw the colors under which he 
had fought, and heard the shouts of the men he had so 
often led to battle, he forgot all else, and tlirew himself 
into the arms of Napoleon. 

Louis XVIII. fled in haste, and the restored government 
of the Bourbons melted into thin air. 

The Vienna Congress of European powers, called to read- 
just national boundaries, was in session when news came of 
Napoleon's return. The coalition (p. 264) was at once re- 
newed, and the allied troops again took the field. 

Battle of Waterloo (1815). — Napoleon quickly assembled 
an army and hastened into Belgium, hoping to defeat the 
Enghsh and Prussian armies before the others arrived. De- 
taching Grouchy with 34,000 men to hold Bliicher and the 
Prussians in check, he turned to attack the English. Near 
Brussels he met Wellington. Each general had about sev- 
enty-five thousand men. Napoleon opened the battle with a 
feigned but fierce attack on the Chateau of Hougoumont on 
the British right. Then, under cover of a tremendous artil- 
lery-fire, he massed a heavy column against the center. La 
Haye Sainte — a farmhouse in front of Wellington's line — 
was taken, and the cavalry streamed up the heights beyond. 
The English threw themselves into squares, upon which the 
French cuirasseurs dashed with the utmost fury. For five 
hours they charged up to the very muzzles of the British 



1 When Colonel Labedoy^re joined him with his regiment, each soldier took 
from the bottom of his knapsack the tricolored cockade, winch lie had carefully 
hidden for ten months. 



1815.] FRANCE — THE RESTORATION. 267 

guns. English tenacity struggled with French enthusiasm. 
Wellington, momentarily consulting his watch, longed for 
night or Bliicher. Napoleon hurried messenger after mes- 
senger to recall Grouchy to his help. Just at evening, Ney 
with the Old and the Young Guard made a last effort. These 
veterans, whose presence had decided so many battles, swept 
to the top of the slope. The British Guards who were lying 
down behind the crest rose and poured in a deadly fii-e. 
The English converged from all sides. Suddenly cannon- 
ading was heard on the extreme French right. " It is Grou- 
chy," cried the soldiers. It was Bliicher's masses carrying 
all before them. The terrible " saiive qui pent " (save himseK 
who can) arose. Whole ranks of the French melted away. 
"All is lost," shouted Napoleon, and, putting spurs to his 
horse, he fled from the field. 

Second Abdication. — Having abdicated the throne a second 
time. Napoleon went on board the British ship Bellerophon, 
and surrendered. In order to prevent him from again 
troubling the peace, England imprisoned him upon the 
Island of St. Helena. The long wars of the French Revo- 
lution which had convulsed Europe since 1792 were at length 
ended. 

Napoleon's Fate. — The Corsican Adventurer dragged out the re- 
mainder of his life in recalling the glories of his past, and complain- 
ing of the annoyances of the present. On the evening of May 5, 
1821, there was a fearful storm of wind and rain, in the midst of 
which, as in the case of Cromwell, the soul of the warrior went to 
its final account. The tempest seemed to recall to his wandering 
mind the roar of battle, and his last words were, "Tete d^armee^' 
(head of the army). He was buried near his favorite resort, — a 
fountain shaded by weeping willows. In his will was a request that 
his " body might repose on the banks of the Seine, among the people 
he had loved so v*^ell." During the reign of Louis Philippe, his re- 
mains were carried to Paris, and laid beneath a magnificent mau- 
soleum connected with the Hotel des Invalides. " The body had been 
so skillfully embalmed that nineteen years of death had not effaced 



268 



THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 



[1815. 




TOMB OF NAPOLEON AT ST. HELENA 



the expression of the well- 
remembered f eatiu'es. Men 
looked once more with rev- 
erence and pity upon the 
almost unchanged counte- 
nance of him who had been 
the glory and the scourge 
of his age." 

Napoleon's Opportuni- 
ty was a rare one, but he 
ingloriously missed it. At 
several stages in his career 
— probably after Marengo, 
at all events after Auster- 
litz — he had it within his 
reach to found one of the 
most powerful and compact 
kingdoms in the world. He might have been emperor of a France 
bounded by the Pyrenees, the Alps, and the Ehine, with by far the 
greatest military strength in Europe. Within this splendid territory 
he might have established a moral and intellectual power. But his 
double-dealing, his project of parceling out Europe among his kindred 
and dependants, and the folly of the Austrian marriage, the Spanish 
war, and the Russian campaign, — all illustrated his lack of wisdom, 
and wrecked his throne. 

"Napoleon's Mission," says Bryce, "was to break up in Germany 
and Italy the abominable system of petty states, to re-awaken the spirit 
of the people, to sweep away the relics of an effete feudalism, and leave 
the ground clear for the growth of newer and better forms of political 
life." He was as despotic as the kings whom he unseated. During 
nineteen years of almost constant war he inflicted upon Europe the most 
appalling miseries. Yet out of the fearful evils of his life came the 
ultimate good of humanity. Even the hatred evoked by his despotism, 
and the patriotic efforts demanded to overthrow his power, taught the 
nations to know their strength. To the Napoleonic rule, Germany and 
Italy date back the first glimpses and possibilities of united national 
life. 



Second Restoration. — Louis XVIII. now reoccupied 
his throne. France, in her turn, was forced to submit to 
a humiliating peace. Tlie Congress of Vienna imposed an 
indemnity of seven hundred million francs, a loss of terri- 



1815.] 



FRANCE — THE RESTORATION. 



269 



toiy having a population of twenty-five hundred thousand 
persons, and the occupation of the French frontier by a 
foreign army for five years.^ Louis now resisted the ultra- 
royalists, and prudently sought to establish a limited mon- 
archy, with a chamber of peers and 
one of deputies, based upon a re- 
stricted suffrage. His brother suc- 
ceeded to the crown. 

Charles X. (1824-30) was bent 
on restoring the Bourbon despotism. 
His usurpations led to the ^^ Eev- 
olufion of the Three Bays of Juli/, 
1830." Once more the pavements 
of Paris were torn up for barricades. 
La Fayette again appeared on the 
scene, waving the tricolored flag.^ 
The palace of the Tuileries was 
sacked. Charles fled. The Cham- 
bers elected his cousin, the Duke of 
Orleans, as "King of the French," 
thus repudiating the doctrine of the 
" divine right of kings." 

The House of Orleans.— iowis PMlippe (1830-48), the 
" Citizen King," who now received the crown, at first won 
the good- will of the nation by his charming family-life, and 
his earnest efforts to rule as a constitutional monarch. But 
there were many conflicting parties, — the Bourdotiists, who 

1 The allies returned to their owners the treasures of art Napoleon had pillaged. 
"The bronze horses from Corinth resumed their old place on the portico of the 
Church of St. Mark in Venice ; the Transfiguration was restored to the Vatican ; the 
Apollo Belvidere and the Laocoon again adorned St. Peter's ; the Venus de' Medici 
■was enshrined with new beauty at Florence; and the Descent from the Cross was 
replaced in the Cathedral of Antwerp."— Zorei's Modern Europe. 

2 The blue and red were the colors of Paris; to these La Fayette added (1789) the 
Bourbon color, white, to form a cockade for the National Guards. This was the origin 
Of the famous French " tricolor." 




COLUMN OF JULY. 



270 



THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 



[1830. 



sustained the grandson of Charles X. (Comte'de Chambord, 
or " Henry V.") ; the Bonapartists, who remembered Napo- 
leon's successes, and not the misery he had caused ; the Or- 
leanists, who supported the constitutional monarchy ; the 
BejmbUcans, who wished for a republic ; and the Bed or 
Radical BeimUicans, who had adopted socialistic doctrines. 
The favorite motto was, "Liberty, Equality, and Frater- 




LANChKb ( LL Vl.lM. 1111 hoL I 1 \ VUDs OF I'AUIS. 



nity." Political clubs fomented disorder. Amid these 
complications, the king's popularity waned. His policy of 
"peace at any price," and his selfish ambition in seeking 
donations and royal alliances for his family, aroused gen- 
eral contempt. Finally a popular demand for an extension 
of the franchise found expression in certain " Reform Ban- 
quets." An attempt to suppress one of these meetings at 
Paris precipitated 



1848.] FRANCE — THE SECOND REPUBLIC. 271 




I'lCUCLAMATIOX OF TllK llIiPLBLIC. 



The Revolution of 1848.— Barricades sprung up as 
by magic. The red flag was unfurled. The National Guards 
fraternized with the rabble. Louis Philippe lost heart, and, 
assuming the name of Smith, fled to England. A republic 



272 THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 



[1848. 



was again proclaimed. France, as usual, followed the lead 
of Paris.^ 

2. THE SECOND REPUBLIC (1848-52). 

The Paris Mob, tliough it had established a repnbhc, 
really wanted equality of money rather than of rights. The 
Socialists taught that government should provide work and 
wages for every one. To meet the demand, national work- 
shops were estabhshed ; but, when these proved an evil and 
were closed, the Reds organized an outbreak. For three 
days a fearful fight raged in the streets of Paris. Order 
was at last restored at a cost of five thousand lives. 

LiOuis Napoleon, nephew of Napoleon I., was then chosen 
president of the new republic. Before his four-years' term 
of office had expired, he plotted, by the help of the army, a 
coup d^etat (1851). His very audacity won the day. The 
Chamber of Deputies was dissolved; his opponents were 
imprisoned; and he was elected president for ten years. 

As, fifty years before, the Consulate gave place to the 
Empire, so now the Second Republic was soon merged in 
the Second Empire. In 1852 the president assumed the 
title of emperor. Again the popular vote approved the over- 
throw of the republic, and Napoleon's violation of the consti- 
tution he had sworn to support. 

3. THE SECOND EMPIRE (1852-70). 

Napoleon III. modeled his domestic policy after that 
of Napoleon I. He relied on the army for support, and cen- 
tralized all authority. He improved Paris by widening its 
streets and removing old buildings. He reorganized the 
army and navy; extended railroads; encouraged agricul- 

1 At tills time the provinces complained that they "had to receive their revolu- 
tions hy mail from Paris." In our day, Paris is no longer France; and the rural 
population has become a power in politics. 



1852.] FRANCE — THE SECOND EMPIRE, 



273 




STREET PLACARDS AXNOUXCING THE COUP D'EIA 



ture ; and dazzled men's eyes by 
tlie glitter of a brilliant conrt. 
In 1867, when a World's Fair was 
held in Paris, visitors were im- 
pressed by the evidences of a 
wonderful material prosperity. 

At his ascension, Napoleon announced his policy in the 
words, "The empire is peace." Yet four wars character- 
ized his reign, — the Crimean (p. 280), the Italian (p. 288), 
the Mexican (U. S. Hist., p. 248), and the German. The 
first brought him great glory ; the last revealed the inherent 
weakness of the Naj)oleonic administration, and caused the 
emperor's downfall. 

The Franco-Prussian War (1870-71).— The time- 
honored policy of France was to perpetuate German di- 
visions in order to weaken that nation. Of late there had 

B G H— 34 



274 THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. [1870. 

been an especial jealousy between France and Prussia. The 
former was distrustful of Prussia's growing power, and the 
latter was eager to avenge Jena and recover the Rhine. A 
proposal of the Spaniards to bestow their crown upon a kins- 
man of the King of Prussia was resented by France, and out 
of it finally grew an excuse to declare war. 

Invasion of France. — The French troops left Paris to the 
cry of " On to Berlin," but they never crossed the Rhine. 
The soldiers had no respect for their commanders, and lacked 
discipline and confidence. The generals were ignorant of 
the country and the position of the enemy. The Prussian 
trooper knew more of the French roads than many an im- 
perial officer. The German armies, by their sui3erior dis- 
cipline and overwhelming numbers, crushed all opposition. 
Victories followed fast, at Weissenburg, Worth, Courcelles, 
ThionvlUe, and Gravelotfe. Napoleon himself surrendered at 
Sedan with eighty thousand men, and Marshal Bazaine at 
Metz with one hundred and eighty thousand. 

When the news of Sedan reached Paris, the people turned 
their wrath upon Napoleon and his family. The empress 
Eugenie fled to England,^ and the empire was at an end. 
The conquerors now closed in upon Paris, and, after a 
siege of over four months, the city surrendered. 

4. THE THIRD REPUBLIC (1871 TO THE PRESENT TIME). 

The Republic. — The Germans having granted a three- 
w^eeks' truce that the French might vote for a new govern- 
ment, an Assembly was chosen by the people. Thiers was 
elected president of the new republic. But peace was pur- 
chased only by the cession of Alsace and part of Lorraine, 
and a penalty of five billion francs. Thus Strasburg, taken 
by Louis XIV., and Metz, by Henry II., were lost, and 

1 The emperor dierl there iu exile (1873); his son, the prince imperial, fell as a 
volunteer in the Zulu War (1879). 



1871.] 



FRANCE — THE THIRD REPUBLIC. 



275 



France itself, wliicli in 1814 had been conquered only by 
all Europe, lay at the mercy of one nation. Jena and the 
cruel indignities which the first Napoleon had inflicted on 
Germany were sadly expiated. 

The Commune (1871). — While a German army was yet 
at hand, the indemnity unpaid, and the country devastated 

by war, the Parisian rab- ^ ^ 

ble inaugurated a second 
reign of terror. Barricades 
were thrown up, the red 
flag — symbol of anarchy — 
was unfurled, and a Com- 
mune was established at 
the Hotel de Yille. The 
Assembly met at Versailles 
and collected troops. Then 
ensued a second siege of 
Paris more disastrous than 
the first. The Communists, 
defeated at aU points, laid 
trains of petroleum, and 
destroyed the Tuileries, 
the Hotel de ViUe, and many of the finest public buildings. 
This fearful ruin was as useless as it was vindictive. 

The Assembly, having triumphed, assumed the diffi- 
cult task of government. The administration of Thiers 
was singidarly successful, and the payment of the war pen- 
alty within two years excited the wonder of the world. The 
French ascribed Germany's success to her pubhc schools, 
and so primary education became one of the foundations 
of the young republic. The army was also remodeled on 
the German plan, and it is said that twenty-four hundred 
thousand men could now be put in the field. 



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A FEMALE COMMUNIST. 



276 



THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 



[1871. 




BAKKICADING THE STREETS OF TAKIS. 



Ill 1899 the French President was Emile Loubet, the 
sixth after Thiers, who resigned in 1873. 



1820.] ENGLAND — THE HOUSE OP HANOVER. 277 

II. ENGLAND UNDER THE HOUSE OF HANOVER {Contimied). 

The English Monarchs of the nineteenth century are 
as follows: George IV. (1820-30), owing to the insanity of his 
father, ruled for nine years as regent. Though styled the 
" Fii'st Gentleman of Europe " for his courtly manners and 
exquisite dress, he was selfish as Charles I., and profligate as 
Charles II. William IV. (1830-37), brother of George IV., 
having seen service in the navy, was known as the " Sailor 
King." His warm heart, open hand, and common sense 

w^on the love of England. Victoria (1837 ), niece of 

William IV., ascended the throne at the age of eighteen.^ 
Her reign has proved a blessing to the world. AH England 
has felt the benediction of her pure life and her Christian 
example, as queen, wife, and mother. 

State of the Country.— The long wars of the French 
Revolution left England bm-dened with a debt of four billion 
doUars. The condition of the common people was miserable. 
Wages were low, and the Corn Laws, imposing a heavy duty 
on foreign grain, made the price of food very high. Suffrage 
was limited ; there was no system of public education ; and 
the laws w^ere unequal. Thousands of disbanded soldiers 
and sailors vainly sought for work. Bands of discharged 
laborers roamed through the country, breaking the lace 
and stocking frames which had taken from them their em- 
ployment. Incendiary fii-es lighted the evening sky. Every- 
where men's minds were astir with a sense of injustice and 
a need of political privileges. But it is noticeable, that, 
while in France improvement came only by revolution, in 
England wTongs were righted by peaceable reform. 

Reforms.— The Test Act (p. 202) was repealed in 1828, 
and the next year Catholics were granted, with a few excep- 

1 Hanover was then severed from the British Empire by the Salic law (p. 226). 



278 THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. [1832. 

tions, equal rights with their Protestant fellow-citizens. The 
Fii*st Reform Bill (1832), proposed by Lord John RusseU, 
extended the franchise, abolished many rotten boroughs/ 
and empowered the large towns to send members to Parlia- 
ment. The Negro Emancipation BiU (1833), passed chiefly 
through the philanthropic efforts of WiUiam Wilberforce, 
suppressed slavery throughout the British Empii-e. 

The Chartists, principally workingmen, were so called 
from a document termed the People's Charter, in which they 
demanded six changes in the constitution : viz., (1) universal 
suffrage ; (2) vote by ballot ; (3) annual Parliaments ; (4) pay- 
ment of members of Parhament ; (5) abolition of property 
qualification for a seat in the House ; and (6) equal electoral 
districts. In 1848 — that year of revolution over the Con- 

1 Cities, like Manchester and Leeds, then sent no members to Parliament, while 
some little villages had two members apiece. The great landowneis dictated to their 
tenants the proper candidate. There were many "pocket or rotten boroughs" hav- 
ing seats in Parliament, yet without house or inhabitant. One of these was a ruined 
wall in a gentleman's park ; another was under the sea. " So utterly were the people 
excluded from any part in politics, that for twenty years there had not been in Edin- 
burgh any public meeting of a political cliaracter." 

" During the elghteentli century, the Irish Parliament, composed of Protestants of 
an exceedingly bitter type, had heaped upon the unhappy Catholics of Ireland an 
accumulation of the most wicked laws wliich have ever been expressed in the English 
tongue. A Catholic could not sit in Parliament, could not hold any office under the 
crown, could not vote at an election, couhl not be a solicitor, or a physician, or a 
sherifif, or a gamekeeper. If his son became a Protestant, he was witJidrawn from 
paternal custody and intrusted to Protestant relatives, with a suitable provision by 
the father for his maintenance. A Catholic was not permitted to own a horse of 
greater value tlian five pounds. If he used a more reputable animal, he was bound to 
sell it for that sum to anj' Protestant wlio was disposed to buy. If a younger brother 
turned Protestant, he supplanted the elder in his birthright. A Catholic could not 
inherit from an intestate relative, however near. A Protestant solicitor who married 
a Catholic was disqualified from following his profession. Marriages of Protestants 
and Catholics, if performed by a piiest, weie annulled, and the priest was liable to 
be hanged. In the early part of the century, a Catholic who was so daring as to enter 
the gallery of the House of Commons was liable to nTn^Ht."— Mackenzie's Nineteenth 
Century. Many of these pitiable laws were abolished in the century that gave tliem 
birth ; others would have been annulled after the Union in 1801, had it not been for 
the violent opposition of George IV., supported by Mr. Peel and the Duke of Welling- 
ton. The Irish patriot, Daniel O'Connell, roused the country, and hastened an era of 
reform. In 1782, under the lead of the eloquent Henry Grattan, Ireland obtained 
an independent Parliament,— an advantage lost again in 1801. Tlie question of Irish 
home rule was involved in several parliamentary elections. In 1898 an act was passed 
securing local self-government for Ireland. 



1848.] ENGLAND — THE HOUSE OP HANOVER. 279 

tinent — the Chartists mustered on Kennington Common, 
intending to march through London to the House of Com- 
mons, to present a monster petition (said to contain five 
million signatures), and compel an assent to their demands. 
The government appealed to the citizens, and 200,000 vol- 
unteered^ as special constables. This remarkable display 
of public opinion quelled the movement. The Chartists 
disbanded, but the agitation bore fruit, and most of the 
reforms have since been granted. It was a contest for 
political power, but with it came one for cheap bread. 

An Anti-Corn-Law League was formed in Manches- 
ter (1839), having branches throughout the kingdom. At 
the head of this agitation were Richard Cobden and John 
Bright. They held the doctrine of free trade, — that every 
man should be free to buy in the cheapest market and to 
sell in the dearest, without restriction. On the other hand, 
the Protectionists claimed that high duties, by keeping up 
prices, defended home industries against foreign competition. 
In the midst of the discussion, the potato crop of Ireland 
failed, and the famine in that country (1846) forced Robert 
Peel, the leader of the Conservatives in Parliament, to intro- 
duce a bill abolishing duties upon grain, cattle, etc. This 
repeal came into operation in 1849. 

The First Locomotive. — The year 1830 is memorable 
for the opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, 
upon which passenger-cars were drawn by a locomotive- 
engine, — the invention of George Stephenson. 

Cheap Postage. — A young man named Rowland Hill 
brought forward the idea of penny postage. The scheme 
was laughed at, but it became a law in 1840.^ 

1 One of these volunteers was Louis Napoleon, then an exile in England, hut chosen 
the next year as president of the French Republic (p. 272)l- 

2 "Walter Scott tells us tliat in his day the mail from Edinburgh to London often 
contained only a single letter, the postage being thirty-two cents. 



280 THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. [1837. 

The First World's Fair (1851) was held at London in 
the Crystal Palace, then a novel structure of iron and glass, 
covering about nineteen acres of ground. Prince Albert, 
the royal consort, fostered this exliibition, which gave a 
new impetus to English art industries. 

Crimean War (1854). — The emperor Nicholas of Russia, 
anxious to seize the spoil of the " sick man," as Turkey was 
called, took possession of some provinces on the Danube, 
under the pretext of supporting the claims of the Greek 
Christians to certain holy places in Jerusalem. England 
and France aided the sultan. An allied army, seventy 
thousand strong, was landed in the Crimea. The victory of 
the Alma enabled the troops to advance upon Sebasto'pol, a 
fortified city which commanded the Black Sea, and in whose 
harbor lay the fleet which menaced Constantinople and the 
Bosporus. The siege lasted nearly a year. Innumerable 
combats, two desperate battles {BalaMava ^ and I)iJcerman)j 
incessant guard by day and night, hard labor in the trenches, 
and an unhealthy climate, tried the valor of the French and 
the constancy of the English.^ Finally the French stormed 
the Malakoff redoubt, and the Russians evacuated the city. 
When the conquerors entered, they found such ruin, flame, 
and devastation as greeted Napoleon in the streets of Moscow. 

By the Treaty of Paris (1856), the czar agreed to abandon 
his protectorate over the Danubian provinces ; the naviga- 
tion of the Danube was made free ; and Russia was allowed 
only police vessels of war on the Black Sea.^ 

Indian Mutiny (1857). — The sepoys, or native soldiers 
in the English service in India, revolted because their car- 



1 This battle is famous for the charge of the Six Hun rl red so grapliicallj'^ described 
in Tennyson's popular poem, " The Charge of the Light Rri'^ade." 

2 In this war Florence Nightingale won lier renown as an arraj- nurse. 
8 Inl870 Russia abrogated, this restriction. - .. - 



1856.] ENGLAND — THE HOUSE OF HANOVER. 281 

tridges were said to be greased with tallow or lard.^ The 
white residents at Delhi, Cawnpore, and other points, were 
massacred with horrible barbarity. The Europeans at Luck- 
now held out against Nana Sahib until reenforced by Gen- 
eral Havelock, who defended the city while CoHn Campbell 
(Lord Clyde) and his Highlanders came to the rescue. The 
rebellion was finally crushed, and the East India Company 
(1859) transferred tlie government of India to the queen, 
who in 1876 was made Empress of India. 

Cotton Famine. — Our civil war cut off the supply of 
cotton, so that everywhere factory operatives were either 
thrown out of employment or worked only haK-time. The 
workingmen, who were generally Liberals, sympathized with 
the war for the Union, and patiently bore hunger and want, 
in devotion to their principles. 

Recent Events. — In 1878, England, under Disraeh's 
lead, checked Russia's plan to seize Constantinople, and re- 
ceived from Turkey the Island of Cyprus. In 1882 an ex- 
pedition was made to suppress an Egyptian insurrection and 
protect English interests in the Suez. In 1885 a Soudanese 
rebellion, led by Mah'di (dee), a false prophet, attacked the 
English garrison at Khartoum, and General Gordon was 
killed. Dissatisfaction with the course of the ministry in 
tins matter led to the retirement of Mr. Gladstone's cabinet. 
In 1891 Mr. Parnell was deposed from the leadership of the 
Irish Home Rule party. The Soudan was recovered in 
1898 (p. 298), while Lord Salisbury was prime minister. 

Recent Reforms. — In 1867 a Reform Bill, carried by 
the Conservatives, under the leadership of Lord Derby and 
Mr. Disraeli, granted a franchise which amounts very nearly 
to household suffrage. In 1869, under Mr. Gladstone's ad- 

1 They regarded this as an insult to their religion, since a Hindoo may not touch 
cow's fat, or a Mohammedan lard. 



282 THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. [1870. 

ministration, a bill was carried for tlie disestablishment and 
disendowment of the Established Chui'ch in Ireland, where 
the Catholics are the majority of the population. In 1870 
education was made compulsory, school boards were estab- 
lished in every district, and the support of schools was pro- 
vided for by taxation. In 1870, and again in 1881, bills were 
adopted regulating tenant-rights in Ireland. In 1871 aU 
rehgious tests for admission to office or degrees in the uni- 
versities were abolished. In 1872 voting by ballot was 
introduced. In 1889 elementary education was made free 
in Scotland. In 1890 physical cultm-e, manual training, 
and kindergarten methods, were introduced in schools. 

III. GERMANY. 

Germanic Confederation. — The Holy Roman Empire 
came to an end in 1806, 1006 years after Pope Leo crowned 
Charlemagne at Rome. After Napoleon's defeat at Water- 
loo, it was hoped that the ancient empire would be restored ; 
the patriotic struggle for liberty had welded the petty nation- 
alities, and the people did not wish their restoration. But, 
instead, the Congress of Vienna (p. 266) formed a German 
Confederation of thirty-nine states. A permanent diet was 
to sit at Frankfort-on-Main, Austria having the presidency. 

Prussia, through the liberality of the Congress of Vienna, 
received back all the territory she had lost by the confis- 
cations of Napoleon, and, in addition, Swedish Pomerania, 
the Rhinelands, and a part of Saxony. She was once more 
a great power, with an area of one hundi^ed thousand square 
miles and a population of ten million people. 

The Holy Alliance (1815). — The sovereigns of Russia, 
Austria, and Prussia, after theii^ triumph in 1815, formed a 
compact, agreeing " to regulate their conduct by the precepts 
of the Gospel," and also, as is generally believed from their 



1828.J 



GERMANY. 



283 



subsequent conduct, to aid one another in suppressing the 
principles of liberty aroused by the French Revolution. 

The Demand for Freedom and Unity.— The princes 
in the Confederation promised to grant constitutions, but 
most of them forgot the agreement (p. 259, note). They 
generally opposed union, and sought to crush its rising spirit 
in the universities. The questions of liberty and union 
were so blended, however, that in many minds the only 
thought was which should first be secured. Quite a step was 




THE ROYAL PALACE AT BEKLIN. 

taken by Prussia's gradually becoming, after 1828, the center 
of the ZoUverein, a commercial union between the German 
states which agreed to levy customs at a common frontier. 

The Revolution of 1848 in France roused the Germans 
anew to demand ^'freedom of speech, hberty of the press, 
and a constitutional government." The Teutonic love of 
freedom blazed forth in aU the great cities. Various im- 



284 



THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 



[1848. 



portant reforms had been instituted in Prussia, but the peo- 
ple were not satisfied. A conflict broke out in the streets 
of Berlin, and several persons were killed; whereupon, 
Frederick William IV. (table, p. 220) put himself forward 
as the leader of the movement for German unity ; the army 
stood firm for the Crown ; finally a new constitution with a 
limited suffrage was granted, and order was reestabhshed. 

In Austria, on the con- 
trary, repression and arbi- 
trary measures had been 
adopted, through the in- 
fluence of Prince Metter- 
nich, — the avowed friend 
of despotism. At Vienna, 
an uprising, headed by 
the students, di'ove Met- 
ternich into exile, and 
such was the confusion 
that the emperor Ferdi- 
nand sought safety in 
flight.^ The excesses of 
the revolutionists, how- 
ever, destroyed all hope of 
success. Ferdinand now 
abdicated in favor of his 
nephew, Francis Joseph. 
In Hungary the insurrection was more serious. Kossuth 
was the soul of the revolution. Austria was finally obliged 
to call in the Russians. An Austro-Russian army of four 
hundred thousand, under the infamous Haynau (known in 
history as the '' Hangman "), entered Hungary and wreaked 

1 " I want obedient subjects," said the emperor to the students at Laybach, "and 
not men of learning." 




PORTKAIT OF COUNT BISMARCK. 



1866.] 



GERMANY, 



285 



its vengeance on the hapless patriots. The surrender of the 

leader Gorgey, with his entire army, ended the fruitless 

struggle. Kossuth gave 

himself up to the Turks ; 

he lay in prison until 

1851, when he was set 

free by the intervention 

of the United States and 

England. 

War with Den- 
mark (1864). — Bis- 
marck, the Prussian 
minister, induced Austria 
to join Prussia in wrest- 
ing from Denmark the 
Duchies of Schleswig and 
Holstein. The di\ision 
of the easily acquired 
plunder caused renewed 
bitterness between the 
two rival countries. 

Seven- Weeks' War (1866). — The jealousy between 
Prussia and Austria for the leadership in Germany was 
thus increased, and Bismarck openly declared that it could 
be settled only by ''blood and iron." Excuses were easily 
found, and in 1866 Prussia and Italy declared war against 
Austria. The Austrians won in Italy, but the Prussians — 
armed with the new needle-gun, and led by the great Von 
Moltke — routed them at Sadotva,^ and conquered the Peace 
of Prague. Austria was forever shut out of Germany, 
besides paying a large sum for war expenses. 

1 When the king and the crown prince met on the fieki after the battle, the army 
struck np the same old choral hymn, " Now let all hearts thank God," that the troops 
of Frederick the Great sang after the victory of Leuthen (p. 224). 




PORTRAIT OF WILLIAM, KING OF PRUSSIA. 



286 THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. [1871. 

The North German Confederation. — The northern 
states were now joined, with a common constitution and 
assembly, under the presidency of Prussia, whose territory 
was enlarged by annexations. The South German states — 
Baden, Bavaria, and Wiirtemberg — remained independent. 

Union of Germany. — When the French war broke 
ont, the South German states joined Prussia, and the crown 
prince commanded a united army of over a million men. 
The enthusiasm of the struggle developed the national senti- 
ment. With victory came a fresh desii-e for union. Finally, 
during the siege of Paris, in the Palace of Versailles, King 
WiUiam was proclaimed Emperor of Germany (1871). Ger- 
many at last meant something more than "a mere geo- 
graphical expression." William I. was succeeded in 1888 
by his son Frederick, who survived him only three months. 
The crown then fell to William II. Bismarck was dis- 
placed from office in 1890, and died in 1898. 

Austria-Hungary. — After the Seven- Weeks' War, Aus- 
tria granted the long-needed reforms. Hungary received a 
constitution, and in 1867, Francis Joseph, Emperor of Aus- 
tria, was crowned King of Hungary, under its constitution. 
Since then Hungary and Austria have been two distinct 
states, though with certain common interests, and are united 
poHticaUy under the same dynasty. 

IV. ITALY. 

Austrian Domination. — The Congress of Vienna left 
Italy enslaved and divided. The dream of a restored nation- 
ahty, nearly realized under Napoleon, was rudely dispelled ; 
the old separations were renewed ; the old tjTants were re- 
seated. Once more Austrian despotism hung like a mill- 
stone about the neck of the nation. 

The history of Italy from 1815 to 1848 is one of chronic 



1848.] 



ITALY. 



287 



insurrection. The Carbonari (charcoal-burners), a secret 
society formed to resist Bourbon oppression, numbered in 
Italy over half a million members, with branches in other 
countries. An organization known as Young Italy was 
formed by Mazzini, an Italian refugee, who first advanced 
the idea gf a free united Italy. Besides open revolts, there 
were secret plots, while assassinations were only too fre- 
quently perpetrated in the name of liberty. 

But Austria was strong enough, not only to hold her own 
possessions of Lombardy and Venice, but also to keep her 
creatures upon their thrones in the smaU states, and to 
crush the republican movement throughout the peninsula. 
There was one hopeful sign. In the kingdom of Sardinia, 
where Charles Albert began to reign in 1831, a spirit of na- 
tionality prevailed. 

Revolution of 1848. — The example of the French 
and the German patriots roused the Italians to a new 
struggle. Milan and 
Venice rose in arms. 
Charles Albert raised the 
banner against Austria. 
For a time nearly all 
northern Italy was re- 
lieved from the Haps- 
burg yoke. But the pa- 
triot triumph was short. 
The Austrians gained so 
decisive a victory at N'o- 
vara (1849) that the 
broken-hearted Sardinian 
king resigned his crown 

to his son Victor Em- i-okikait ok victou kmmanuel. 

manuel II. 




288 



THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 



[1859. 



Pope Pius IX. was the friend of the Liberals, and had 
granted many rights to the people, but their demands in- 
creased during this republican year, and he finally fled 
from Rome. That city was then declared a republic, and 
Mazzini was elected chief of the Triumvirs, or magistrates. 
But, strangely enough, the French Republic espoused the 
cause of the Austrians, and, though Garibaldi, the ''Hero 
of the red shirt," bravely defended Rome, it was carried by 
storm. The Pope came back mth absolute power, and a 
French garrison was placed in the city. 

By the close of 1849 the insurrection had been crushed 
out everywhere, and tyranny seemed triumphant. But in 
Sardinia, Victor Emmanuel maintained a constitutional 

government, and more 
and more men began to 
look to him as the cham- 
pion of Italian free- 
dom. He kept his word 
to his people, who called 
him the " Honest King." 
In 1853, Count Cavour, 
an ardent and wise 
friend of Italian unity, 
became his prime min- 
ister. He induced Em- 
manuel to win the good 
will of France and Eng- 
land by helping them in 
the Crimean war. Ac- 
cordingly the allied 
powers remonstrated with Ferdinand for his cruel rule in 
Italy, and finally France and Sardinia joined in a 
War against Austria (1859). — Napoleon himself took 




PORTRAIT OF GARIBALDI. 



I860.] 



ITALY. 



the field. The combined French and Sardinian forces won 
the brilliant victories of Magenta and Solferino. Napoleon 
had promised " to make Italy free from the Ticino to the 
Adriatic," and he seemed about to keep his word. But 
Prussia threatened to take the part of Austria, and Napoleon, 
without consulting Emmanuel, concluded the Peace of Villa- 
franca. Lombardy was ceded to Sardinia. Soon after, Nice 
and Savoy were annexed to France. Tuscany, Modena, 
Parma, and Romagna, by a popular vote, became subject 




.i.i. i..^.,LlI ARMY OCCLP'iI^U IIIE C^blLL OF bl AM.ELO 

to Sardinia. Thus by the help of France nine million 
people were added to this kingdom, — the hope of Italy. 

Freedom of Sicily and Naples. — Events now moved 
on rapidly. The people of Naples and Sicily groaned under 
the cruel Bourbon rule. Garibaldi, issuing from his rocky 
retreat of Caprera, landed at Marsala in Sicily, proclaiming 
himseK dictator for Emmanuel. Palermo and Messina 
quickly fell into his hands, and, crossing to the mainland, 



290 THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 

he entered Naples in triiimph. The people of Naples and 
Sicily now joined themselves to Sardinia. 

United Italy. — Enimannel now controlled all Italy, ex- 
cept the Austrian pro\ince of Venetia and the city of Rome, 
which the French held for the Pope. The first Italian 
Parhament (Turin, 18G1) proclaimed Victor Emmanuel King 
of Italy. Count Cavour died shortly after, but his pohcy 
of bringing his country into European pohtics quickly bore 
fruit. As the result of Italy's joining the Seven- Weeks' War 
between Austria and Prussia (1866), she got back Venice and 
Verona. Finally, during the struggle between France and 
Germany (1870), Napoleon called home the French troops, 
and the next year Victor Emmanuel removed his court from 
Florence to Rome. Upon the death of Victor Emmanuel, 
1878, his son, Umberto I., succeeded to the crown. The 
Pope now ceased to be a temporal prince (p. 26), though 
he retained his spiritual power; and Leo XIII., the pres- 
ent (1899) supreme pontiff, resides in the Vatican. 

V. TURKEY. 

The Aggression of the Turks continued after the fall 
of Constantinople. Mohammed II. overthrew Greece, and 
threatened Italy. Bosnia and Albania were annexed. The 
Crimea was ^vrested from the Genoese. Hungary was re- 
peatedly invaded. Twice Vienna itself was besieged. All 
southeastern Europe was finally conquered, save where the 
Montenegrins held their mountain fastnesses. Selim I., 
Mohammed II.'s grandson, extended his dominion over 
Mesopotamia, Assyria, Syria, and Egypt. The reign of 
Solyman, his son, marked the acme of the Turkish power 
(p. 130). 

The battle of Lepanto (1571), in which the combined fleets 
of Spain, Venice, Genoa, and the Pope, under Don John of 



TURKEY. 291 

Austria, destroyed tlie Turkish fleet, was t"he turning-point 
in the Ottoman progress. From that time, Poland, Hun- 
gary, and Austria steadily drove back the hated infidel. 
Finally the rise of Russia in the 18th century gave the Turk 
a new enemy. Peter the Great dreamed of making the Black 
Sea a Russian lake ; and the avowed determination of Russia 
has ever since been the conquest of the effete nation 
that shuts off the mighty northern empire from the Medi- 
terranean. The integrity of Turkey, however, is a cardi- 
nal principle in European diplomacy. England especially, 
through jealousy of Russia's power in India, has supported 
the sultan. But for English interference, the remaining 
four millions of people upon whom there fell, at the begin- 
ning of modern history, the calamity of Turkish conquest, 
would ere this have achieved their freedom, and the bar- 
barous Moslem intruders into Europe would have been 
wholly expelled. 

In 1877-78 was fought the Russo-Turkish War, in which 
the Russians vanquished the Turks. The fruits of their 
victory, however, were partly lost through the interference 
of England. The Berlin Treaty, by which the Great Pow- 
ers finally settled the matter, made Servia, Roumania, and 
Montenegro independent, secured additions to the territory 
of Austria-Hungary and Greece (p. 292), and granted self- 
government to Bulgaria and Crete. In Crete, however, 
the sultan's promises were not carried out, and the people 
rebelled. Greece then tried to annex the island (1897), but 
this was prevented by the Great Powers. Soon, however, 
war broke out between Greece and Turkey, and Greece was 
defeated, being saved from utter ruin only by the restrain- 
ing influence of the Powers. Finally, the Cretan difficulty 
was ended when the son of the King of Greece was made 
its governor. 



292 THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 

VI. GREECE. 

Greece endured the hateful Turkish bondage for nearly 
four hundred years. Every rising for freedom was crushed 
with terrible cruelty. In the year 1821, however, the spiiit 
of liberty flamed into inextinguishable revolt. Many Eng- 
lishmen — among them Lord Byron, the poet — took sides 
with this heroic people. The beautiful island of Scio was 
laid waste by the Ottomans (1822) ; and the next year the 
Suliote patriot, Marco Bozzaris, during a night attack upon 
the enemy's camp, fell in the moment of victory. In this 
desperate contest of years, one half of the population is 
said to have perished, and large tracts of land were reduced 
to a desert. The Tm^ks called the Egyptians to their help, 
and Greece seemed likely to be overwhelmed. 

Finally, England, Russia, and France formed a league to 
aid the Hellenes in this unequal struggle. Their combined 
fleets destroyed the Tui-kish and Egyptian fleets in the Bay 
of JS^avanno, — the old Pylos (1827). The French troops 
drove the Egj^ptians out of the Peloponnesus, and in 1830 
Greece became an independent kingdom under the protec- 
tion of the Triple League. So at last the land of Plato 
and Pericles was free again. Georgias I., son of the King 
of Denmark, was elected King of Greece in 1863.^ 

VII. TH E NETHERLANDS. 

The Netherlands, after Louis abdicated the throne, was 
annexed by Napoleon to France. In 1813 the people threw 
off the French yoke, and recalled the house of Orange to the 



1 It is interesting to note the interrelations of the European royal families. Thus 
in 1898 the Queen of Denmark was tlie mother of the King of Greece and the Princess 
of Wales, and grandmother of the Czar of Russia; wliile Queen Victoria was the 
grandmother of the German Emperor and of tlie Empress of Russia. At one time, 
Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh, son of Victoria, was almost unanimously called by the 
Greeks to be their king, but the conditions of the Triple League forbade his acceptance. 



RUSSIA. 293 

government. The Congi-ess of Vienna joined the northern 
and the southern provinces, Holland and Belgium, the united 
kingdom being called The Netherlands, — a name now ap- 
plied to Holland only. 

The Belgians, however, disliked the Hollanders; and a 
spark from the French Revolution of 1830, falling among 
this restive people, kindled the flame of insurrection. The 
independence of Belgium was declared, and Leopold of Saxe- 
Coburg-Gotha was called to the throne. His son, Leopold 
II., succeeded him in 1865. 

Holland has had an uneventful history since its separation 
from Belgium. The present Queen of the Netherlands, 
Wilhelmina, succeeded her father, William III. of Orange, 
in 1890; her mother, Emma, acted as queen-regent until 
Wilhelmina became of age (1898). 

VIM. RUSSIA. 

Alexander II. (1855-81) introduced several reforms 
into this despotic empu^e. He improved the system of edu- 
cation, opened new commercial routes, and reorganized the 
army and navy. Greatest of aU, he emancipated the serfs 
(1863), numbering between forty and fifty millions, one half 
of whom belonged to the Crown. But his emancipation 
policy enraged the aristocracy, while his refusal to grant a 
constitution displeased the other classes. The Nihilists (a 
powerful secret society sworn to the annihilation of Russia's 
present government) repeatedly sought to kill him. Thus, 
in spite of his reforms, Alexander, whose despotic father 
had walked the streets fearlessly, could not appear in public 
without peril of assassination. At last (1881) it came. 

The reign of his son, Alexander III., was equally disturbed. 
By new and revived edicts against the Jews (1890), about 
two milUons of people were suddenly deprived of all means 



294 THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 

of support, banished the empire, or subjected to merciless 
severities. University disturbances continually arose on 
account of the laws which placed the schools under con- 
stant police surveillance, and large numbers of suspected 
students and professors swelled the army of political exiles 
to Siberia. In 1891-92 a severe famine intensified the woes 
of the common people. 

In the reign of Nicholas II. (1894- ) work on the great 
trans-Siberian railroad was pushed rapidly forward. 

IX. JAPAN. 

The Ruling Dynasty of Japan boasts of an unbroken 
succession during twenty-five centuries. Its founder, their 
chronicles assert, was Jimmu, from whom the present mika- 
do, or emperor, is the one hundred and twenty-third in dii-ect 
descent. The assumed date of Jimmu's ascension (660 b. c.) 
is styled the year 1 of the Japanese era.^ In the 6th cen- 
tury A. D., Buddhism was introduced (through Corea) from 
China ; with it came the Asiatic civilization. A stream of 
skilled artisans, scholars, teachers, and missionaries, poured 
into the country, and thenceforth the Japanese character 
was molded by the same forces that gave to the Celestial 
Empire its peculiar features. 

The Shogun, or Tycoon, the commander-in-chief of the 
army, acquired in 1192 the entire control of political affairs, 
the mikado retaining only the religious supremacy and the 
symbols of royalty. Under this dual form of government, 
there grew up a feudal system, the military leaders, or 
daimios, securing land in fief, erecting castles, and support- 
ing a host of retainers. This relic of the middle ages lasted 
until 1868, when a revolution restored the mikado to su- 

« This chronology v-oulrt make Jimmu a contemporary of the Assyrian monarch 
Asshur-bani-pal (Anc. peo., p. 49) 



JAPAN. 295 

preme power, destroyed the Shogun's rule, and abolished the 
feudal titles and tenures. At the command of the mikado, 
two hundred and fifty vassal nobles, resigning their princely 
incomes, lands, and retinues, retired to private life. 

The Portuguese, during the era of maritime adven- 
ture in the 16th century, came to Japan. The missionary 
quickly followed the sailor. Francis Xavier, the apostle to 
the Indies, introduced Christianity (1549), and in time six 
hundred thousand converts were made. This second influx 
of foreign civihzation was stopped by the expulsion of the 
Portuguese and a violent persecution of the Christian Jap- 
anese. The history of the Church in Europe presents no 
more devoted faith or heroic constancy than were shown 
by the martyrs of this bloody period. The Dutch alone 
were allowed a residence upon an island in the harbor of 
Nagasaki, and to exchange a single ship-load of merchan- 
dise per year. 

Commodore Perry, with a squadron of United States 
vessels, entered the harbor of Yokohama (1854). He made a 
treaty with Japan, and secured the opening of certain ports to 
our trade. Since then the third foreign wave has swept over 
the Sun-land. Successive commercial treaties have been 
made. The former exclusiveness has been broken down, old 
ideas have been uprooted, and the nation has been thrust into 
the path of modern civilization. In 1875 the mikado es- 
tablished a senate ; in 1879 he inaugurated provincial and 
departmental assemblies ; and in 1889 Japan became a con- 
stitutional monarchy, with a Cabinet, a Privy Council, a 
House of Peers, and a House of Representatives. Under the 
new order, absolute religious freedom is secured, elementary 
education made compulsory, kindergarten methods are pro- 
vided, and a flourishing government university is supported. 
The principles and practice of modern jurisprudence rule the 



296 



THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 



courts. Thus in this progressive little island a single gen- 
eration has witnessed governmental changes that required 
in Europe centuries to perfect. 




THE FOUU CLASSES OF JAPANESE SOCIETY,— MILITARY, AGKICULTUKAL, LABOULNG, AKD 
MERCANTILE (FROM A DRAWING BY A NATIVE ARTIST). 



X. CHINA. 

Some Chinese ports were opened to foreign trade while 
Japan was still tightly closed against foreigners; but 
China's progress in modern civilization has been very slow. 
In the Chinese-Japanese War of 1894-95 Japan was every- 
where successful, although her population and natural 
resources were but a tenth of what China could command. 
As a result of this war Japan gained Formosa and a money 
indemnity, and Korea was made independent. 

The weakness of the Chinese Empire having thus been 
shown, it is in danger of undergoing a partition among 
the principal European powers. Already Manchuria in the 
north has passed under the practical control of Russia 5 
France has secured concessions in the south : Great Britain 



AFRICA. 297 

has asserted its exclusive influence (as against other foreign 
powers) over the great Yang-tze valley; and Germany and 
Italy have gained control of ports on the coast, with an 
undefined influence over the destinies of the adjoining in- 
land regions. 

XI. AFRICA. 

Almost the entire continent of Africa is now parceled out 
among European nations, by virtue of various treaties 
among themselves and with native tribes. European 
settlers have established roads, railroads, and telegraphs, 
and the continent is being rapidly opened to civilization. 

France conquered Algeria in the first half of the century, 
and she controls also Tunis, other parts of western Africa, 
and Madagascar. 

Great Britain took Cape Colony from the Dutch in 1806, 
and soon began to send colonists there. The Dutch colo- 
nists, or Boers, then moved northward and established the 
Orange Free State and the Transvaal, or South African 
Republic. The Transvaal was later annexed by Great 
Britain, but after a short war it secured a treaty (1881) 
which gave it independence in internal affairs, while in 
its foreign relations it was to be subject to Great Britain. 
When gold was found there in large quantities, a great 
many foreigners, chiefly British, went there to live, but 
were excluded from what they considered a fair share in 
the government. The resulting friction became acute in 
1896 and in 1899 led to a second war with Great Britain. 

Great Britain also controls the territory about the mouth 
of the Niger, and an almost continuous line of provinces 
from Cape Colony to Egypt. The Soudan, formerly be- 
longing to Egypt, became independent soon after Great 
Britain assumed control of Egyptian affairs. But in 1898 



298 THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 



[1899. 



the army of Sir Herbert Kitchener won over the Soudanese 
the great battles of Atbara and Omdurman, and recovered 
the lost province. 

G-ermany and Portugal own extensive territories in the 
southern half of Africa. The Kongo Free State is con- 
trolled by the King of the Belgians. 

XII. THE SPANISH COLONIES — SOUTH AMERICA. 

At the beginning of the nineteenth century the chief 
Spanish colonies included the Philippines, Cuba, Puerto 
Rico, Mexico, Central America, and most of South America 
— except Brazil, which belonged to Portugal. When Napo- 
leon placed his brother on the Spanish throne, the loyalty 
of these colonies was weakened, and by 1825 all but the 
Philippines, Cuba, and Puerto Rico won independence. 
Finally, a rebellion in Cuba led to a war between Spain and 
the United States (1898), by which Spain lost all three of 
these colonies. The former Spanish colonies on the Ameri- 
can continent had become republics; but Brazil, on sever- 
ing its connection with Portugal, became an empire. In 
1890, however, a revolution transformed that country also 
into a republic. Its President in 1899 was Campos Salles. 

READING REFERENCES. 

For works on the French Revolution, see p. 252.— Miiller's History of Recent Times, 
translated hy Peters {commended to all as an excellent resume of General History 
from 1816 to 1S81). — McCarthy's Epoch of Reform (Epochs of History Series).— Griffia's 
The Mikado's Empire, and Political Progress in Japan {The Forum, i?'*?^., 1891).— 
McCarthy's History of Our Own Times.— Kinglake's Invasion of the Cri'tnea.— Hunt's 
History of Italy {Freeman's Historical Course). — May's Constitutional History of 
England {especially valuable in its accotint of reform,s) .— Mackenzie' s The Nineteenth 
Century.— Wrightson's History of Modern Italy, 18]'j-50.— Felton's Ancient and 
Modern Greece.— Freeman's The Turk in Europe.— Talleyrand's Memoirs. 



HISTORICAL RECREATIONS. 

MEDIAEVAL AND MODERN PEOPLES. 

1. On a monument of Canova's in St. Peter's are inscribed the fol- 
lowing names of British sovereigns : James III., Charles III., and 
Henry IX. Who were they? 

2. Who was the " Snow King " ? The ' ' Winter King " ? 

3. We read in the history of France of the ''Constitution of the 
Year III. ; " the "Constitution of the Year VIII. ; " the " Revolution of the 
18th Brumaire ; " the " Revolution of the 18th Fruetidor ; " etc. Explain. 

4. A historian says, "Morgarten was the Marathon of Switzer- 
land." Explain. 

5. What great war was waging in Europe during our War of 1812? 

6. Who was said to be the " first man in Europe, and the second in 
France"? 

7. In what great emergency did the Dutch propose to imitate the 
Athenians? 

8. Compare Cardinals Wolsey and Richelieu. 

9. It is said that the " Duke of Guise under Henry HI. threatened 
to be another Pepin to a second Childeric." Explain. 

10. Who were the " Sea Beggars " ? 

11. Who was the "nephew of his uncle "? 

12. Name the revolutions in France since 1789. 

13. Wliat names of kings are common to England, France, and 
Germany ? 

14. What name is confined to England? France? Germany? 
Russia? 

15. Which was the most illustrious Henry of England? France? 
Germany ? 

16. What woman was the prime mover in the massacre of St. Bar- 
tholomew? 

17. What English king had six wives? 

18. What English king assumed the title of ''King of France"? 

19. Compare the Charleses of England with those of France. 

20. How many kings ruled in England during the reign of Louis 
XIV.? 

21. What was the difference between the titles "King of the Ro- 
mans" and "Emperor of Germany"? 

22. What German king kept an English king in prison until ran- 
somed? 



ii HISTORICAL RECREATIONS. 

23. Name the German emperors who led an army into Italy. 

24. Who was the ''First Gentleman in Europe"? 

25. Who was the " Little Man in Red Stockings " ? 

26. When did Russia first meddle in the affairs of western Europe ? 

27. Which is the oldest nation in Europe? The youngest? 

28. Who was the "Last of the Tribunes"? 

29. Who was the "Madman of the North"? 

30. What Stuart sovereign did not meet a tragical end? 

31. What high office did Wolsey hope to secure? 

32. Who was the " Silent One " ? The ' ' Lost Dauphin " ? - 

33. What was the Babylonish Captivity? 

34. Who was the "First of the Stuarts"? 

35. Name the different World's Fairs. 

36. Wliat were the so-called " Reform Banquets "? 

37. Who was the "Conqueror of Crecy"? 

38. Describe the different Revolutions of 1848 in Europe. 

39. What three English kings, each the tliird of his name, reigned 
over fifty years ? 

40. When did France have an insane king? England? 

41. Who was the first of the Norman kings to die in England? 

42. Who was the " Merry Monarch " ? 

43. State the time, the cause, and the result upon Prussia, of the 
Seven-Years' War; the Seven-Months' (Franco-Prussian) War; the 
Seven-Weeks' War. 

44. Who was the " Conqueror of Blenheim " ? 

45. The Scots termed the Pretender "James VIII." Explain. 

46. What corresponding financial bubbles were blown in England 
and in France early in the 18th century? 

47. Who was the "Great Commoner"? 

48. Explain the sentence in Macaulay's History, "Hundreds of thou- 
sands whom the Popish Plot had scared into Whiggism, had been scared 
back by the Rye House Plot into Torjdsm." 

49. ^Vlio was called the ''Best of the Georges"? 

50. Who was Louis XVII. of France? 

51. Who was "King Hal"? 

52. Wlio was Napoleon II. of France ? 

53. A historian remarks, "In 1806 the 120th of the Caesars became 
only Francis II. of Austria." Exj)lain. 

54. Wlio was the "Citizen King"? 

55. Whom did Carlyle style the "Great Prussian Drill Sergeant"? 

56. Who was the "Conqueror of Agincourt"? 

57. How many republics have been established in France ? 

58. Name the principal battles of Conde. 

59. A historian, remarking upon the reign of Louis XVI. of France, 



HISTORICAL RECREATIONS. lli 

says, " There was now no Mayor of the Palace, no Count of Paris, no 
Henry IV., to found a new dynasty." Explain. 

60. Who was "Queen Bess"? 

61. What was the cause of the long hostility between England and 
France ? 

62. What is the European States-System? 

63. Who was the "Iron Duke"? 

64. Who was the "Greatest of the Plantagenets"? 

65. State the origin of the Methodists ; of the Friends. 

66. Wlien was the last States-General convened in France? 

67. Who was the first Prince of Wales? 

68. Who was the "King of Bourges"? 

69. Describe the effect of the Norman Conquest of England. 

70. When Charles XII. invaded Russia, Peter said, ''My brother 
Charles affects to play the part of Alexander ; but I think he will not 
find in me a Darius." Explain. 

71. Who was the " Old Pretender " ? The " Young Pretender " ? 

72. What prime minister governed the English Parliament by 
bribery? 

73. Who was " Good Queen Anne " ? The " Virgin Queen " ? 

74. Contrast the conduct of the spectators at the execution of 
Charles I. and of Louis XVI. 

75. Who was the " Napoleon of Peace " ? 

76. Who was the first king of England? 

77. Compare the fate and the character of Richard II. and Ed- 
ward II. of England. 

78. Who was styled the " King of the French " ? 

79. Why did the Normans finally blend so easily with the Anglo- 
Saxons in England? 

80. What were the causes of the French Revolution? 

81. What is meant by the Balance of Power? 

82. In what respect did the conquest by the Turks resemble that 
by the Germans? 

83. When did the tiers etat get its first representation in France ? 

84. Who were Wesley and Whitefield ? 

85. Compare the close of the Carlovingian dynasty in France with 
that of the Merovingian. 

86. Tell what the Normans did in Europe. 

87. Who was the "Prisoner of Ham"? (Napoleon III.) 

88. What was the Pragmatic Sanction? 

89. Why are there so many French artisans in England? 

90. Who was Henry V. of France? 

91. What kings had titles referring to physical qualities ? To men- 
tal qualities? 



IV HISTORICAL RECREATIONS. 

92. What was the Treaty of Paris? Vienna? Presburg? Lune- 
ville? Amiens? Campo Formio? Passau? Tilsit? Utrecht? Aix- 
la-Chapelle? Nimeguen? Ryswiek? 

93. State the causes, effects, principal battles, and prominent gen- 
erals of the Himdred- Years' War. 

94. Bound France at the accession of Capet. 

95. What event in English history did Napoleon's dispersion of the 
Five Hundred resemble ? 

96. Who was the " Grand Monarch " ? 

97. Who were the most despotic kings named in history? 

98. Who was the " Count of Chambord " ? \Vho is '' Eugenie "? 

99. Who fought the battles of Blenheim, Ramillies, Oudenarde, and 
Malplaquet? 

100. When and where were the Reformers called Protestants? 

101. Who were the Whigs? The Tories? What was the origin of 
these names? 

102. What was the Fronde? 

103. For what is Sully famous? 

104. Quote some noted historical passages from Shakspere. 

105. When did the Germans first invade France ? 

106. Who were the " Do-nothing kings " ? 

107. In how many great battles were the Austrians defeated by Na- 
poleon? 

108. What French king made the first invasion of Italy? The last? 

109. Who was the "Hero of Rocroi"? 

110. Who fought the battles of Fontenoy, Raucoux, and Lawfelt? 

111. Who was the "Sailor King"? 

112. For what is Francis I. noted in history? Louis XIV. 7 Louis 
XV. ? Henry IV. of France? Henry IV. of Germany? 

113. What was the Edict of Nantes? 

114. Who was the last king of France? The last emperor? 

115. What two great generals died during a tempest? 

116. State what was decided by the Peace of Westphalia. 

117. Who was "Corporal Violet"? 

118. Who fought the battles of Rocroi, Freiburg, Nordlingen, and 
Lens? 

119. What French kings reigned during the time of the Crusades?' 

120. For what is Colbert noted? Louvois? 

121. Who were the Huguenots? 

122. State the principal events in the life of Luther. 

123. Who were the Nonconformists? 

124. Name the chief kings of the 14th century ; the 18th. 

125. Who was King of France in 1066 ? 1572? 1648? 1776? 

126. Give the origin of the French " tricolor." 



HISTORICAL RECREATIONS. V 

127. What important event occurred at the Diet of Worms? 

128. Who was the great rival of Charles V. f 

129. What was Napoleon's first great victory? His last? 

130. What was the Confession of Augsburg? 

131. Who were the Puritans? The Separatists ? The Independents ? 

132. Explain the following sentence used by an historian : '' Pope 
Gregory XIII. saw in Henry III. a second Louis V., and in Henry 
Duke of Guise a new Hugh Capet." 

133. Tell the story of the Spanish Armada. 

134. Describe the English Revolution of 1688. 

135. Whose motto was "Divide and govern"? 

136. Describe the pomp, power, and fate of Wallenstein. 

137. How many great battles did Napoleon lose? 

138. Name the causes, effects, duration, principal battles, and prom- 
inent generals, of the War of the Spanish Succession. 

139. What was the object of the Council of Trent? 

140. Describe the events by which the Church of England was 
separated from Rome. 

141. Tell the story of Essex and the ring. 

142. What was the life-purpose of William, Prince of Orange? 

143. Who was the "Little Corporal"? 

■ 144. What was the Tennis-court oath? 

145. What was the cause of the downfall of Napoleon I. ? Napo- 
leon HI. ? 

146. What English monarch was the contemporary of Charles V. 
and Luther? 

147. \Vliat was the fate of Archbishop Cranmer? 

148. Name and distinguish the three famous Princes of Orange. 

149. Describe the sack of Magdeburg. 

150. What French kings reigned during the time of the Hundred- 
Years' War? 

151. Was Henry VIII. favorable to Luther? 

152. What effect did the massacre of St. Bartholomew have upon 
the civil war in France? 

153. What marriage laid the foundation of the rivalry between the 
houses of Austria and France ? 

154. Who prepared the Book of Common Prayer? 

155. Who was John Calvin? George Fox? 

156. Name the best kings in the Capetian line ; the Carlovingian 
line ; the Tudor line ; the Stuart line ; the Bourbon line ; the Plan- 
tagenet line. 

157. What was the character of Catharine de' Medici? 

158. Describe the last days of Charles V. 

159. What was the object of the revocation of the Edict of Nantes? 



VI HISTORICAL RECREATIONS. 

160. What peculiar tactics did Napoleon adopt at Austerlitz? 

161. What was the effect of the battle of Naseby? 

162. What were Eichelieu's aims? 

163. What was the peculiarity of the reign of Charles II. of England? 

164. What French king married Mary, afterward Queen of Scots ? 

165. What was meant by ship-money? 

166. What was the Long Parliament? 

167. What queens of France were divorced? 

168. What is meant by the " Sun of Austerlitz " ? 

169. What was the duration of the so-called Hundred- Years' War? 

170. Wliat was the Gunpowder Plot! 

171. Tell something about the character of Marlborough. 

172. What was ^'Pride's Purge"? 

173. What was the Battle of the Nations? 

174. What was the Day of the Sections ? 

175. What was the Seven- Years' War called in America? 

176. Who was the ^'Hero of Marston Moor"? 

177. For what is the elder Pitt noted? 

178. How many Henrys were among the kings of France? 

179. How many French kings have surrendered to the enemy? 

180. Describe the glory of Cromwell's Protectorate. 

181. What king learned the ship-builder's trade? 

182. What great capitals of Europe did Napoleon enter in triumph? 

183. Sketch the life of Charles XII. of Sweden. 

184. What does the change of name from Northmen to Normans in- 
dicate ? 

185. What infant in his cradle received the title of the ''King of 
Rome"? (See Brief Hist. France.) 

186. In what battle were spurs of more service than swords? 

187. Who were the Leaguers f 

188. What was Walpole's policy? 

189. Who were the Schoolmen? 

190. Who were the Ironsides? 

191. Name the great battles fought between the French and the 
English. 

192. What was the Rump Parliament ? 

193. Who is sometimes styled Napoleon IV. ? 

194. Why was Cromwell's rule distasteful to the English ? 

195. How many coalitions leading to war have been made against 
France? 

196. How many years have the descendants of Capet occupied the 
throne of France? 

197. Wliat was the Declaration of Rights? 

198. Who was John Law? 



HISTORICAL RECREATIONS. vii 

199. What was the Black Hole ? The Black Death? 

200. Which was the first victory of the French Republic ? Its effect? 

201. Should Louis XVI.' be blamed for the Revolution? 

202. How many times did Napoleon enter Vienna as a conqueror? 

203. When did Kossuth appear in history? 

204. Describe the Reign of Terror. 

205. How many years has the government of France been a repub- 
lic? An empire? 

206. Name the principal actors in the Jacobin rule dimng the French 
Revolution. 

207. Who were the Carbonari? 

208. Where are the keys of the Bastile? 

209. What were the Assignats? 

210. What was the Test Act? 

211. What great poet helped Greece achieve its freedom? 

212. Who was the Black Prince? 

213. What gi'eat events occurred in the time of Philijj I. ? 

214. What was the Renaissance ? 

215. Illustrate how often, in history, a strong king has been followed 
by a weak one. 

216. What was the first English Reform Bill? 

217. What great war was marked by the capture of a king and a 
pope, and the sack of Rome ? 

218. What great political crime was perpetrated soon after the Seven- 
Years' War? 

219. To what line of kings did Charles V. of France belong? Henry 
IV. of France? Henry IV. of England? Henry IV. of Germany? 
Louis XV. ? Charles the Simple of France ? 

220. Who was " Father Fritz " ? 

221. What was the German Confederation? When was it formed? 

222. On the public buildings in Paris are inscribed the words, 
"Liberie, Egalite, Fraternite." Whence did this motto take its rise? 

223. Why was not the art of printing discovered earlier than the 
15th century? (This question is designed to bring up the general 
relation of supply and demand. ) 

224. Who was the '^Corsican Adventurer"? 

225. Name the great victories of Luxemburg. 

226. How did Marlborough's fall affect continental affairs? 



00 



z/. 



What memorable event occurred at the siege of Leyden in 1574? 

228. In what battle did Gustavus Adolphus fall? 

229. What victories did the Prince of Orange win over the French? 

230. What wa-s the South Sea Bubble? 

231. How is the history of Maria Theresa linked with that of Fred- 
erick the Great? 



Vlll HISTORICAL RECREATIONS. 

232. What monarch wore high-heeled shoes to increase his stature? 

233. What is meant by the elder and the younger branch of the 
Bourbons ? 

234. Name some standard life of Frederick the Great ; Louis XIV. ; 
Charles XII. ; Peter the Great ; Napoleon ; Charles V. 

235. What was the Mississippi scheme? How did it affect this 
country ? 

236. Whence did the French derive their love of a strong, centralized 
government ? 

237. Name the standard histories of England, and state their pecu- 
liarities and the periods they cover. 

238. When and by whom was St. Petersburg founded ? 

239. How many Johns have reigned in France ? In England ? 

240. Sketch the character of the "Four Georges." 

241. When and how did France lose Canada? 

242. What kings were assassinated? 

243. What ruler occupied a different bed every night? 

244. Illustrate the love of his soldiers for Napoleon I. 

245. What was the Golden Bull? 

246. What was the Aulic Council? 

247. Who were the Girondists? 

248. Who were the Roundheads? The Cavaliers? 

249. How did the character of George III. affect this country? 

250. Name the great men who clustered about Louis XIV. 

251. What women have exerted a great influence on French history? 

252. What was the fate of Marat? Danton? Robespierre? 

253. What great victories did Nelson achieve ? Effect? 

254. When, where, and between whom, was the battle of Guinegate 
fought? Steinkirk? Lens? Blenheim? Jena? Pa via? Waterloo? 
Wagi-am ? Oudenarde ? 

255. What influence did our Revolutionary War have upon France ? 

256. What great battle finally cheeked the Turkish advance in 
Europe ? 

257. Describe the retreat from Moscow. 

258. Sketch the growth of the Papacy after the fall of Rome. 

259. What was Queen Anne's war called in Europe ? 

260. What monarch persecuted the Protestants in France, and yet 
protected them in Germany? Why? 

261. With what European nations was England engaged in war dur- 
ing our Revolution? 

262. What modern nation, in imitation of ancient Rome, has been 
governed by a consul? 

263. In what century was the age of Louis XIV. ? The age of 
Elizabeth? The age of Richelieu? 



HISTORICAL RECREATIONS. IX 

264. Who suppressed the Knights Templars ? 

265. What was our Kiug William's War called in Europe? 

266. What great battles have been fought on the plains of Leipsic? 

267. What was the point of difference between the Calvinists and 
the Lutherans? 

268. Name the principal battles of Napoleon I. 

269. Give an account of Napoleon at the Bridge of Lodi. 

270. What were the Berlin decrees? 

271. What is meant in French history by the Revolution? The 
Hundred Days? Tlie Restoration? 

272. For what achievement is Sobieski noted? 

273. Who were the Janissaries? 

274. Sketch Wellington's career. 

275. Who was the ''Exile of St. Helena"? 

276. Duruy says, "Napoleon HI. was not a royal do-nothing." Ex- 
plain the allusion. 

277. What was the cause of the long hatred between England and 
France ? 

278. What great statesman died on hearing of the battle of Austerlitz ? 

279. When was the temporal power of the Pope founded ? 

280. *' The dream of Charlemagne and Charles V. was Napoleon's 
also." Explain. 

281. What was the ZoUverein? 

282. What were the causes of the French Revolution of 1830? 
1848? 1871? 

283. For what is the year 800 noted? 1000? 1066? 1346? 1415? 
1492? 1494? 1517? 1525? 1558? 1571? 1572? 1588? 1598? 
1630? 1648? 1666? 1704? 1707? 1756? 1775? 1789? 

284. Sketch Napoleon's Egyptian campaign. 

285. What was the object of the Anti-Corn-Law League? 

286. Who were the Chartists? 

287. Name some Italians who have attained prominence in French 
politics. 

288. What was the effect upon European history of the marriage of 
Mary of Burgundy to Maximilian ? 

289. What is the Code Napoleon? 

290. What was the kingdom of Burgundy? 

291. What curious story is told of Rollo's doing homage for his fief? 

292. How did Charlotte Corday's dagger precipitate the Reign of 
Terror? 

293. Name some incident of the battle of Iviy. 

294. What was Cavour's policy? 

295. What was Luther's object in posting the ninety-five theses on 
the cathedral door? 



X HISTORICAL RECREATIONS. 

296. What child-kings have occupied the throne of France? Of 
England? 

297. Who is the "Sick Man"? 

298. What became of Josephine after the fall of Napoleon? Maria 
Louisa? (See Brief Hist. France.) 

"299. Where did the charge of the Six Hundred occur? 

300. Name the causes and effects, the duration, the principal battles, 
and the prominent generals, of the Seven-Years' War. 

301. What French king had the longest reign ? The shortest? 

302. What was the effect of the battle of Morgarten? Nancy? Wa- 
terloo? Jena? Jemmapes? Runnymede? Pa via? 

303. Describe the state of the Church when Luther appeared. 

304. What three great European monarchs were contemporaneous 
in the 16th century? 

305. How many French kings have been dethroned? 

306. What will be the probable effect upon Italy of the Suez Canal? 

307. What caused the hostility between Zwingle and Luther? 

308. Who was the "Golden-footed Dame"? 

309. When did a charge of a small body of cavalry decide a great 
battle? 

310. How many times have foreign armies taken Paris? 

311. What was the Holy Alliance ? 

312. What is meant by the '' Three Days of July"? 

313. What folly did Prince Rupert commit at the battle of Naseby? 

314. Why did Francis I. form an alliance with the Turks? 

315. What three kings in succession led great armies into Italy? 

316. Who w^as the chevalier "without fear and without reproach"? 

317. What king sent his own sons to prison in order to release him- 
self? 

318. Relate some anecdote, or state some interesting fact, concerning 
Cromwell ; Napoleon ; Louis XIV. ; Peter the Great ; Charles XII. ; 
Charlemagne ; Mary Queen of Scots ; Elizabeth. 

319. What was the Smalcaldic War? 

320. Explain the cotq? cVetat of Dec. 2. 

321. What was the League of Cambrai? 

322. State the causes of the Guelf and Ghibelline feud. 

323. Name the great events that marked the beginning of the 
modern era. 

324. What was the War of the Investiture? 

325. When and where was gunpowder first used in battle? 

326. What was the needle-gun? 

327. What was an interdict? 

328. What island kingdom has accomplished in a generation w'hat 
required centuries in Europe to perfect? 



HISTORICAL RECREATIONS. , Xl 

329. Tell the sad story of Lady Jane Grey. 

330. Distinguish between the two Maurices named in history. 

331. Name the leaders in the French Civil-Religious War. 

332. Who was the first Bourbon king? 

333. What were Mary Stuart's claims to the English throne? 

334. What was the Conquest of Granada? How is that event con- 
nected with our history? 

335. What was Magna Charta? 

336. What were the causes of the Revival of Learning? 

337. Who was Tilly? 

338. What is the tricolored flag? How did it originate? 

339. Who was the '^ Horace of France"? 

340. Describe Charles II. 's alliance with Louis XIV. 

341. In what respect did Charles I. resemble his father? 

342. What great battles were won with the longbow? 

343. Compare the influence of the discovery of gunpowder with 
that of printing. 

344. What points of contrast were there between the first Stuart 
king of England and the Tudors ? 

345. What is meant by the "divine right of kings''? 

346. What was the Triple Alliance? 

347. Name two instances in which a spider has changed the fate of 
a great man. 

348. Describe the Saracenic civilization in Spain. 

349. What event caused Wolsey's fall ? 

350. Show how the doctrines and forms of the English Church were 
shaped under Edward VI. 

351. What were the greatest events of the 15th century? 16th? 
17th? 18th? 

352. What effect did the Crusades have upon Europe? 

353. What was the Congress of Vienna? 

354. Sketch the steps by which Prussia became the head of Ger- 
many. 

355. With what generals are the battles of Fleurus, Steinkirk, and 
Neerwinden connected? 

356. In what great campaign was the bayonet first used? 

357. How did Richelieu capture Rochelle? 

358. Who was the ''Upholsterer of Notre Dame"? 

359. What is meant by the devastation of the Palatinate? 

360. Who were the Moors of Spain? 

361. What was the Ladies' Peace? 

362. Who were the Knights of St. John? 

363. State the "pivotal point," or the tactics, or some marked inci- 
dent, that decided the issue of the following battles, and by which they 



XU HISTORICAL RECREATIONS. 



n 



can be remembered : Pavia ; Leipsic ; Leeh ; Liitzen ; Freiburg ; 
Marston Moor ; Naseby ; battle of the Boyne ; Plains of Abraham ; 
Lodi ; Arcole ; Eivoli ; Austerlitz ; Waterloo. 

364. What king wrote an essay against the use of tobacco ? 

365. What was the Petition of Right? 

366. What was "Thorough"? 

367. Wbo were the Covenanters? 

368. What was the effect of Luther's translating the Bible? 

369. Describe the extent and power of the Spanish Empire under 
Charles V. and Philip II. 

370. Who were the Jacobites? The Jacobins? 

371. Describe the amusements of three noted kings reigning in the 
early part of the 18th century. 

372. Quote Johnson's verses upon Charles XII. 

373. What event marked the opening of the 18th century? 

374. Name the last battle in which an English king fought in 
person. 

375. What monarch said that he " treated as a prince, and not as a 
merchant"? "I make war on the living, not on the dead"? 

376. When did a death save a great king? • 

377. Tell the story of the famous wind-mill still shown at Potsdam. 

378. State the steps of the Unification of Italy. 

379. Who was the "Hero of the Red Shirt"? 

380. What effect did the Franco-German War of '71 have upon Italy? 

381. What war was brought on by the closing of two churches? By 
the massacre of a congregation? 

382. How did Italy become a province of the Eastern Empire ? 

383. What remarkable man was born in Arabia in the 6th century? 

384. Explain why the Crusaders encountered in Palestine both 
Turks and Saracens. 

385. What tales describe Arabian manners and customs in the 8th 
century? 

386. What complaint was made against the earliest Hanoverian 
kings of England ? 

387. During how many years was England a republic ? 

388. Which one of Napoleon's generals did the Congress of Vienna 
allow to retain his throne ? 

389. Who was the author of the inductive method of reasoning? 

390. Mention some of Mohammed's doctrines. 

391. What was the Continental System? 

392. Why did the Puritans emigrate to America ? 

393. What literatm-e was diffused by the fall of Constantinople? 

394. Describe the expulsion of the Moors from Spain by Philip III. 

395. Show how trade with India has enriched Europe. 



HISTORICAL RECREATIONS. Xlll 

396. What was the greatest extent of the Saracen Empire? 

397. How many queens have ruled England? 

398. Name the "Four Conquests of England." 

399. Which is the longest war named in Euroi^ean history? 

400. Sketch the principal steps in the growth of constitutional 
liberty in England. 

401. Do the Turks belong in Europe? 

402. State the cause, duration, decisive battle, and effect of the War 
of the Roses. 

403. What English reign coincided with three French reigns, and, 
vice versa, what French reign coincided with three English ones? 

404. Sketch the principal features of feudalism. 

405. Who was the "Monk of Cluny"? 

406. Who was the "Great Captain"? 

407. What remarkable men lived during the last decade of the 15th 
century? 

408. What famous duke died in a pool of water by the roadside ? 

409. What treaty was negotiated upon a raft in the river? 

410. How long was Hanover joined to England? 

411. What solitary act of courage did Richard II. show? 

412. Who was Henry the Fowler ? 

413. Contrast early German with early French history. 

414. Is there a sharjj division between any two ages in history? 

415. What Dutch admiral tied a broom to his masthead? 

416. How long after the battle of Hastings did the Great Fire at 
London occur? 

417. Repeat the epigram upon Charles I. 

418. What daughter helped expel her father from his throne? 

419. Who was Peter Zimmermann? 

420. Who was the Great Elector? 

421. What king had a body-guard of giants? 

422. When did the Battle of the Three Emperors occur? 

423. When did the Pope come to Paris to crown a French king? 

424. When did the birth of an heir cost an English kirig his crown? 

425. Tell the story of Maria Theresa before the Hungarian Diet. 

426. Was Cromwell justified in executing Charles I. ? 

427. What was the New Model? 

428. What two great men had the power, but dare not take the title, 
of king? 

429. Sketch the general characteristics of the Stuarts ; the Tudors. 

430. What was the Praise-God Barebone's Parliament? 

431. What was the longest gap between two successive English Par- 
liaments? Two French States-Generals? 

432. Who said, " Better a drowned land than a lost land " ? 



XIV HISTORICAL RECREATIONS. 

433. What was " Morton's Fork " ? 

434. " Francis I. on his way to Paris from Madrid vapored much of 
Regains." Explain. 

435. Charles V. once said, ''I do not intend to blush like Sigis- 
mund." Explain. 

436. What English kings were authors? 

437. What was the Revolt of the Beggars? 

438. Who said, "Some birds are too big for any cage "? 

439. Who was the "Tyrant of the Escurial"? 

440. Why did not Pope Clement VII. dare to offend Charles V. ? 

441. What English minister lost his head for getting his king a 
homely wife ? 

442. Who was the first queen-regnant of England ? 

443. Who was styled the " Flower of Chivalrie " ? 

444. What kings have expelled from their dominions large classes 
of their subjects ? 

445. Contrast the general characteristics of the middle ages with 
those of the modern era. 

446. Who was the "King-maker"? 

447. What was the Holy Roman Empire ? 

448. Name several instances of the general persecuting spirit of 
former times. 

449. What English author defends the character and conduct of 
Henry VIII. ? 

450. Describe the growth and influence of free cities in the middle 
ages. 

451. Mr. Bagehot writes, "The slavish Parliament of Henry VIII. 
grew into the murmuring Parliament of Queen Elizabeth, the mutinous 
Parliament of James I., and the rebellious Parliament of Charles I." 
Explain. 

452. What great events occin-red in 1689? 

453. Was Napoleon I. 's reign a permanent benefit to France? What 
was its general effect upon Europe? 

454. When did a beggar's grandson become a king? 

455. Who said, "I am the state"? 

456. Who was the '^Last of the Knights"? 

457. What peasant girl became a queen? 

458. Has Germany or France ever had a queen-regnant? 

459. To what historical event is allusion made in the poem begin- 
ning,— 

" On Linden, when the sun was low, 
All bloodless laj' tlie untrodden snow? " 

460. Name the fifteen most decisive battles and sieges of modern 
times, and state the reasons for the selection. 



INDEX 

AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY, 



The figures refer to the page number. 



Note. — Diacritical marks are as follows : a, e, I, 6, u, are long; a, g, i, d, H, short, 
as in dm, met, in, dn, Up; a, a, a, a, as in cdre, arm, ask, all; ii as infiill; g^as in term; 
i as in there ; g like s; g like 7; ch like k; § like z; th as, in thine. 



Abbassides (ab-bas'Wz), the, 24. 

Abdal'lah, 99. 

Ab'elard, 107. 

Abou Beker (a'boo bSk'r), 21. 

Aboukir (a-boo keer'), battle of, 245. 

Acre (a'ker), 94, 97, 245. 

Addison, Joseph, 247. 

Adelheid (a'del-hid), married to Otto, 69. 

A'drian IV., Pope, 85. 

Adriano'ple, capture of, 101. 

Africa, 22, 120, 2;)7. 

Agincourt (a-zhan-kooi'), battle of, 60. 

Agric'ola conquers Britain, 31. 

Aix-la-Chapelle (aks-la-sha-pel'), 30, 75, 

184, 223. 
Ajaccio (a-yat'cho), 240. 
Albert I., Duke of Austria, 78, 81, 82. 
Albert II.. 78. 
Albert, Prince, 280. 
Alber'tus Mag'niis, 107. 
Albigen'se§, the, 52. 
Albuera (al-bwa'ra), battle of, 262. 
Alcazar (al-kaz'ar), the, 129. 
Alcuin (al'kwin), 30, 43. 
Alexander of Russia, 2.56, 259, 262. 
Alexandria, 22, 246. 
Alfonso of Arasron, 89. 
Alfred the Great, 33, 43. 
Algiers (al-jeerz'), 186. 
Alhani'bra. the, 24, 99. 
Allo'dial Lands, 102. 
Alma, battle of, 280. 
Alsace (al-sas'), 179, 274. 
Al'va, Duke of, 140. 
Alvinczy (al-vin'tse), 243, 244. 
Ani'bro§e, 15. 

America, discoveiy of, 81, 99, 121. 
Amiens (a'nil-an), 52, 253. 
Amurath (a-moo-raf), 101. 
An'gelo, Michael, 89, 118, 161. 
Anglo-Saxons, 12, 32, 33, 41. 
An-go'ra, battle of, 100. 
Anjou (6n-zhoo'), Dukes of, 124. 
Anne of Austi'ia, 182. 
Anne of Beaujeu (bo-zhoo'), 64. 
Anne of Cleves, 1.54. 
Anne of England, 206. 
Anti-Corn Law League, 279. 
An'ti-6€h, 93. 
Ant'werp, 139. 
Aqui'nas, Thomas, 107. 
Ar'abs, 20-25, 111. 
Ar'agon, 98. 
Arc, Joan of. See Jeanne d'Arc. 



Arch of Titus, 90. 

Ar€han'gel, first Russian seaport, 214. 

Architecture. See Art. 

Arcole (ar-ko'la), battle of, 243. 

Aristotle, 107. 

Arkwright, Sir Richard, 250. 

Armada, the Invincible, 158. 

Armagiiacs (ar-man-yaks'), 60-62. 

Armor. See Military Customs. 

Arquebus (ai-'kwe-bas), 130. 

Art, Assyrian and Babylonian, 107 ; Car- 
loviugian, 30 ; Egyptian, 107 ; English, 
early, 43, 44 ; French, early, 66 ; Ger- 
man, early, 19 ; mediaeval, 10, lOS; Sara- 
cen, 24; 16th century, 161; 17th cen- 
tury, 209, 211 ; 19th century, 255. 

Arthur, Prince, 52. 

Artois (ar-twa'), 52, 64, 183. 

Arts and inventions, Carlovingian, 30; 
English, 43 ; French, early, 66 ; Ger- 
man, 19, 78 ; mediaeval, 108 ; Saracen, 
25 ; 16th century, 161 ; 7th century, 
208 ; 18th century, 249 ; 19th century, 
255. 

As'€ham, Roger, 161, 166. 

As'pern, battle of, 260. 

Assemblies, French, 53, 234-236, 275 ; 
German, 17 ; the Witenagemot, 41, 

At'tila, 87, 99. 

Auerstadt (ow'er-stat), battle of, 258. 

Augsburg, confession of, 136; diet at, 135. 

Augustan age, the, 247. 

Augustus the Strong, 217. 

Aulic Council, 81. 

Aus'terlitz, battle of, 257. 

Austria, 68, 78, 225, 282, 284, 285, 287. 

Austrian Succession, war of tlie, 221. 

Austro-Hungary, 286. 

Avignon (a-veen-yon), 54. 

Azof, capture of, 215. 

Aztecs, the, 121. 

Ba'ber, 100. 

Bacon, Lord, 162, 207. 

Bacon, Roger, 107, 118. 

Badajoz (bad-a-hos'), capture of, 262. 

Bad'en, 20, 286. 

Baiidati', 24 ; capture of, by Turks, 100. 

Bajazet' ravages Greece, 101. 

Balakla'va, battle of, 280. 

Baldwin, King of Jerusalem, 93. 

Ba'li-ol, John, King of Scotland, 39. 

Ban'nuckburn, battle of, 39. 

Banquets, Reform, 270. 

Barbaros'sa, Algerine pirate, 131. 



XVI 



INDEX. 



Barbarossa, Frederick, 74, 94. 

Bai'ueveld, John of, 143. 

Barras (l>a-ra'), Gen., 240. 

BaiT^ (ba-ra'),Col., 230. 

Barri (bare'), Conitesse dii, 231. 

Basle (bal), 170, 172; Council of, 86. 

Bassa'no, battle of, 243. 

Bastile (bas-teel'), storming of the, 234. 

Bata'vian Republic, 239. 

Bautzen (bowt'sen), battle of, 264. 

Bava'ria, 179, 286. 

Baxter, Richard, 207. 

Bayard (ba'ard), Chevalier, 125, 126, 128. 

Bazaine (ba-zan'), Marshal, 274. 

Beauharnais (l)O-ar-na'), Mme. de, 241. 

Beauharnais, Eugene de, 241, 256. 

Beaumont (bo'mont), Francis, 207. 

Becket, Thomas a, 37. 

Bade, the Veneral>le, 43. 

Bedford, Duke of, 61, 62. 

Beagars, 133, 140, 142, 167, 170-172, 185. 

Belgium, 139, 237, 244, 293. 

Belisa'rius, 14. 

Benedictine monks, 84. 

Beneven'to, 257. 

Benevolences, 149. 

Berengar, Prince, 69. 

Berlin Decrees, 259 ; treaty, 291. 

Bernadotte', French marshal, 257. 

Ber'nard, Duke of Weimar, 177, 178. 

Bible, the, 119, 134, 1.63. 195. 201, 217. 

Bi§'marck, Otto von, 284, 286. 

Black Death, the, 56. 

Black Hole of Calcutta, 228. 

Black Prince, the, 56-58. 

Blake, Admiral Robert, 198. 

Blenheim (blen im), battle of, 187. 

Bliicher (bloo'ker), Marshal von, 266. 

Bohe'mia, 80, 174. 

Bo'hemond, 92. 

Boileau (bwa-16'), 207. 

Boleyn (Iwol'in), Anne, 151, 154. 

Bonapartists, the, 270. 

Boniface VIII., Pope 53. 

Bordeaux (bor-do'), 237. 

Borodino (bor-o-dee'no), battle of, 262. 

Bossuet (bos-sii-a'), 207. 

Bo§' worth, battle of, 40. 

BoCh'well, Earl of, 157. 

Boulogne (boo-lon'), 256. 

Bour'bon, Duke of, 128, 129. 

Bourbon, House of, 49, 145-148, 237, 265, 

268, 272. 
Bourgeoisie (boor-zhwa-ze'), the, 53. 
Bouvines (boo-veen'), battle of, 52. 
Boyne, battle of the, 205. 
Brandenburg (bran'den-boorg), 80, 220. 
Brazil, 298. 

Breslau (iirgs'low), 171. 
Bretigny (bia-teen-yee'), 58. 
Brienne (bre-en'), French minister, 232. 
Bright, John. 279. 
Britain, 31, 32, 41. 
British Empire, 281. 
Bruce, Robert, 39. 

Brunswick, House of. See Hanover. 
Bulga'ria, 291. 
Bunyan, John, 207. 
Buonaparte, Jerome, 257. 
Buonaparte, Joseph, 257, 260, 262. 



Buonaparte, Louis, 257. 

Buonaparte, Napoleon. See Napoleon I. 

Burghers, the, 68. 

Burgundians, in France, 60 ; in Gaul, 12. 

Burgundy, Duke of, 60, 63. 

Burke, Edmund, 248. 

Burleigh, Lord, 156, 209. 

Burns, Robert, 247. 

Butler, Samuel, 207. 

Byron, J-ord, 249. 

Byzan'tine Empire, the, 13, 101. 

Cab'ots, the, 121. 

Cabral' takes Brazil, 121. 

Cade, Jack, insurrection of, 62. 

Csesalpinus, 162. 

Caesar, Julius, 18. 

Cairo (ki'ro), 245. 

Calais (ka-la'), capture of, 55, 138. 

Calendar, 2S8, 255. 

Caliphs, the, 21, 24, 93. 

Calonne (kii-lon'), 232. 

Calvin, John, 135. 

Calvinists, the, 138. 

Cambrai (kon-bra'). 126. 

Campbell, Colin (Lord Clyde), 281. 

Campo Formio, 244, 

Cannon, first used, 118. 

Cantons, the Eight Swiss, 83. 

Canute', 33. 

Capet (ka'pet), Hugh, 50. 

Capetian kings, 50. 

Cappadocia, 94. 

Carbonari (kar-bo-na're), the, 287. 

Carlovln'gian kings, 26, 50. 

Caroline, Queen of England, 227. 

Carthage, 14. 

Cartier (kar-tya'), 121. 

Castiglione (kas-tel-yo'na), battle of, 243. 

Castile (kas-teel'), 98. 

Castillon (kas-tee-yon'), battle of, 63. 

Castles, mediaeval, 103. 

Cateau-Cambresis (ka-to'-kon-bra-zee'), 

138, 144. 

Catharine of Aragon, 151. 

Catharine of Austria, 146. 

Catharine the Great of Russia, 219. 

Cathedrals, art in, 109, 140, 269 ; Cologne, 
109 ; Jerusalem, 14; Notre Dame, Paris, 
186 ; Pisa, 162 ; sacked in Netherlands, 

139, 140 ; St. Marks, Venice, 269 ; St. 
Paul's, Londun, 209; St. Peter's, Lon- 
don, 34; St. Peter's, Rome, 27, 269; 
11th century, 139, 140. 

Cavaliers, the, 194. 

Cavendish. Henry, English chemist, 249. 

Cavour (ka-voor'). Count, 288. 

Cawnpore', 281. 

CeQ'il, Sir William (Lord Burleigh), 156. 

Cellini (cbel-lee'nee), Benvenu'to, 161. 

Cel'sius, Anders, Swedish astronomer, 

249. 
Celts, the, 31, 32. 
Cerisolles (sol'), 132. 
Chambord (shon-bor'), Comte de^ 270. 
Chapman, George, English poet, 162. 
Charlemagne (siiar'le-man), 24, 26, 27, 29, 

30, 43, 111. 
Charles I. of England, 192-197. 
Charles II., 197, 200, 202-204, 208. 
Charles I. (the Bald) of France, 29. 



INDEX. 



XVU 



Charles III. (the Simple), 48. 

Charles IV. (the Handsome), 49. 

Charles V. (the Wise), 49, 59. 

Charles VI. (the Well-beloved), 49, 59. 

Charles VII. (the Victorious), 49, 61, 63. 

Charles VIII. (the Affable), 49, 63, 124. 

Charles IX., 144-147. 

Charles X., 269. 

Charles Albert of Sardinia, 286. 

Charles of Anjou, King of the Sicilies, 89. 

Charles of Austria, 187, 188. 

Charles the Bad, of Navarre, 56. 

Charles the Bold, of Burgundy, 63, 127. 

Charles of Valois, 54. 

Charles IV. of Germany, 79. 

Charles V., 122, 127, 129, 133, 136-138. 

Charles VI., 187, 188. 

Charles II. of Spain, 187. 

Charles XII. of Sweden, 217-219. 

Chartists, the, 278. 

Chatham (chat'Sm), Earl of. See Pitt. 

Chau'9er, Geoffrey, 108, 161. 

Chemistry, development of, 249. 

Childeric (chll'der-ik), 26. 

China, 296. 

Chivalry, 104-106, 133. 

Christian IV. of Denmark, 174. 

Christian Church, the, 14, 15, 25, 26, 52, 
80, 84-86, 97, 133, 144, 152, 172, 173, 295 
(see Papal Power) ; Fathers, 15. 

Christianity, 13, 24, 25, 33. 

Christians, the, 131. 

Christina (kris-tee'na) of Sweden, 178. 

Church of England, 152, 154, 156 ; in Ire- 
land, 278, 282 ; in Scotland, 193 ; re- 
stored after Cromwell, 200. 

Cities, free, 77, 86. 

Civilization, Anglo-Saxon, 41 ; Arabian, 
24; Court of Charlemagne, 29; Court 
of Louis XIV., 209; Elizabethan age, 
162 ; Gallic, 65 ; mediaeval, 77, 102, 168 ; 
Teutonic, 16, 19; 16th century, 161; 
17th century, 207 ; 18th century, 232, 
238, 247. 

Clan, the Celtic, 66. 

Clement V., Pope, 54. 

Clement VII., 151. 

Clive (kliv), Robert, 228. 

Clo'vis, 12, 25. 

Clyde, Lord, 281. 

Cob'den, Richard, 279. 

Code, Napoleonic, 255 ; Tribonian, 14. 

Colbert (col-ber'), French minister, 183, 
186. 

Coleridge (kol'rij), Samuel Taylor, 249. 

Coligny (ko-leen'ye). Admiral de, 145- 
147. 

Colleges. See Universities and Educa- 
tion. 

Cologne (ko-lon'), 20, 109. 

Colonna, the Italian, 90. 

Colosse'um, the, 90. 

Columbus, Christopher, 81, 117, 121. 

Commerce, English, early, 42 ; Italian, 
86, 88 ; mediaeval, 20, 42, 88 ; 15th cen- 
tury, 118 ; 16th century, 150, 159, 161 ; 
17th century, 183 ; 18th century, 232, 
249 ; 19th century, 345. 

Commons, House of, 38, 197, 198, 206, 
278, 281. 



Commonwealth, English, 197. 

Communes, French, 275; medifeval, 52. 

Condd (kon-da'), Louis I. de, 145, 146. 

Cond^, Louis II. de, 179, 182, 185. 

Confederations, 19, 81, 142, 257, 282, 285. 

Conrad I., 67. 

Conrad II., 69, 70. 

Conrad III., 73, 74, 94. 

Conrad IV., 75. 

Con'radin, last of the Hohenstaufen race, 
74. 

Conservatives, the English, 194, 281. 

Constance, Council of, 79. 

Constantine ("Last of the Caesars"), 101. 

Constantinople, 22, 95, 101. 

Continental System of Napoleon I., 259. 

Copenhagen, 217. 

Coper'nicus, 118, 162. 

Corday', Charlotte, 238. 

Cordeliers', the, 238. 

Cor'dova, 24. 

Corn Laws, 277. 

Corporations and Guilds, 109. 

Correggio (kor-ed'jo), 161. 

Cor'te§, 122. 

Councils, Aulic, 81 ; Clermont, 92 ; Con- 
stance, 79 ; Constantinople, 112 ; 
Cortes, 98 ; ecclesiastical, 86 ; of State, 
247 ; of Trent, 136. 

Courcelles (koor-sel'), battle of, 274. 

Covenant, Scotch, 193, 197. 

Covenanters, 197, 201. 

Cowper, William, 247. 

Cranmer, Thomas, 151-155. 

Crdcy (kres'si), battle of, 55. 

Crespy, 132, 136, 144. 

Crete, 291. 

Crlrae'a, 219. 

Crimean war, the, 273, 280. 

Cromwell, Oliver, 195-199. 

Cromwell, Richard, 2( 0. 

Cromwell, Thomas, Earl of Essex, 152, 
154. 

Crusaders sack .Jerusalem, 93. 

Crusades, 91-97, 108, 113. 

Cuvier (kii-ve-jY), 249. 

Czars, Russian, origin of title, 214. 

D'Alenibert (da-lon-ber'), 248. 

Damascus, 94. 

Danes, 33, 48. 

Dan'te, 108. 

Dantou (dan'ton), 234, 238. 

Dark ages, the, 10. 

Darnley, Lord, 157. 

Dau'phin, the, 56, 58. 

De Foe, Daniel, 247. 

Del'hi, massacre at, 281. 

Denmark, 175, 217, 285. 

Derby, Lord, 281. 

Desaix (da-sa'), 253. 

Descartes (da-karf), 207. 

De Soto, 121. 

Dettingen (det'ting-en), battle of, 223. 

Diaz (dee'as), Bartholomeu, 120. 

Diderut (de-dro'), writings of, 233, 248. 

Directory, French, 240. 

Disraeli (diz-ra'lee), Benjamin, 281. 

Doge, the, of Venice, 87. 

Dol'lnnd, .John, 249. 

Don Pedro the Cruel, 58. 



XVlll 



INDEX 



Doria, Andrea, Spanish admiral, 130. 

Dover, 202. 

Drake, Sir Francis, 158, 159. 

Dresden, 171, 223, 264. 

Dryden, John, 207. 

Dudley, Lord Guilford, 155. 

Dudley, Robert, Earl of Leicester, 158, 
160. 

Duels, 42. 

Dunbar, battle of, 197. 

Dunkirk, 198, 202. 

Duns Scotus, 107. 

Dii'rer, Albert, 170. 

Dutch Republi(;, rise of the, 139. 

Dutch war, the, 202. 

East India Company, 143, 159. 

Edda, the, 108. 

Education, Carlovingian, 30; English, 

' early, 43; French, early, 63; Ger 
man, early, 13, 19 ; mediaeval, 12, 75, 
84, 107, 108 ; Roman, 12 ; Saracen, 24 ; 
16th century, 161 ; 17th century, 207 ; 
18th century, 251 ; 19th century, 255, 
277, 281. 

Edward I. of England, 38, 39. 

Edward III., 54, 55. 

Edward IV., 34. 

Edward V., 34. 

Edward VI., 154. 

Edward the Confessor, 33. 

E<4bert of England, 33. 

E'^ypt, 22, 245. 

Elba, 264. 

Eleanor, wife of Louis VII., 50, 94. 

Electors, German, 76, 79. 

Elizabeth, Queen of England, 155-160. 

Elizabeth, wife of "Winter King," 174. 

Elizabeth, Empress of Russia, 224. 

Eliz'abethan age, 161-168. 

England, 31-47, 149-168, 188-207, 226-230, 
277-282, 297. 

Erag'raus, 163. 

Escu'rial, the, 138. 

Essex, Earl of, 160. 

Eugene, Prince, 187. 

Eugenie (u-zha-nee'), Empress, 274. 

Eylau (i'low), battle of, 2.59. 

Famine, in England (cotton), 281 ; in Ger- 
many, 179 ; in Haarlem, 140 ; in Ire- 
land, 279 : in Russia, 293. 

Fawkes, Guy, 190. 

Feme, the German, 77. 

F^nelon (fa-ne-lon'), 207. 

Ferdinand I. of Germany, 130, 135. 138 

Ferdinand II., 138, 174-179. 

Ferdinand IIL, 179. 

Ferdinand of Spain, 98, 124, 137. 

Festivals, 16, 41, 167, 168, 173. 

Feudal castles, 103 ; ceremonies, 103 ; 
levy abolished, 119 ; system, 17, 102. 

Field of the Cloth of Gold, 127. 

Fielding, Henry, 247. 

Fire, Great, in London, 201 ; in Moscow, 
262. 

Flanders, war of, 184. 

Fletcher, John, 207. 

Fleu'rus, battle of, 186. 

Flodden Field, battle of, 150. 

Florence, 88, 124. 

Fontainebleau (fon-tan-blo'), 264. 



Fontenay (fon-te-na'), battle of, 28. 

Fontenoy (fon-te-nwa'), battle of, 223. 

Forno'vo, battle of, 124. 

Forty- Years' War, the, IJO. 

Fox, Charles, Pitt s rival, 232. 

Fox, George, founder of Quakers, 199. 

France, 25-31, 48-67, 103, 107, 110, 144- 

148, 180-188, 209, 2::!0-247, 253-276, 297. 
Franche Comt6 (fronsli' kon-ta'), 186. 
Francis I. of Austria, 223. 
Francis I. of France, 126-132. 
Francis II., 144, 145. 
Francis Joseph of Austria, 284, 286. 
Franconian dynasty, 69. 
Franco- Prussian War, 273. 
Franklin, Benjamin, 249. 
Franks, the, 12, 23-31. 
Frederickl. of Germany. See Barbarossa. 
Frederick II. , 75, 96. 
Frederick IL (Elector Palatine). 136. 
Frederick 11. (the Great), 220, 221-225. 
Frederick V., 174. 

Frederick, Don, besieges Haarlen), 140. 
Frederick of HohenzoUern, 80. 
Frederick William (Great Elector), 220. 
Frederick William I. of Prussia, 220, 221. 
Frederick William IV., 220, 284. 
Frederickshall, 219. 
Free Lances, the, 58. 
Freiburg (fri'boorg), battle of, 179, 182. 
Friedland (freet'lant), battle of, 259. 
Friends, the, 199. 
Frobisher, Sir Martin, 158, 159. 
P'ronde and Frondeurs, 183. 
Fngger (foog'er), Anthony, 135. 
Fugger, Herr Marcus, 170. 
Galile'o, 162, 208. 
Galvani (gal-va'nee), 249. 
Games and sports, 18, 45, 106, 167. 
Garibaldi (gar-1-bal'dl), 288, 289. 
Gauls, the, 26, 65, 66. 
Ged'.les, Jenny, 201. 
Geneva, Reformers at, 135. 
Genghis Khan (jen'gis kan), 97. 
Gen'oa, 86, 186. 
George I. of England, 226. 
George IL, 223, 227. 
George III., 229. 
George IV., 277. 
Germanic Confederation, 282. 
Germany, 16, 19, 67. 69, 73-81, 168-172, 

180, 220-226, 282-286. 
Gesner, Konrad von, Swiss naturalist, 

162. 
Ghent, Pacification of, 142. 
Ghil)ellines (gib'el-lhiz), the, 73, 90. 
Gibbon, Edward, historian, 248. 
Gibraltar (jMiral'tar), 188. 
Girondists (il-rSn'dKsts), the, 236, 238. 
Gladstone, William E., 281. 
Godfrey, Duke of Bouillon, 92, 93. 
Goethe (ge'teb), Wolfgang von, 248. 
Golden Bull, the, 79. 
Gonsal'vo de Cor'dova, 125. 
Good Hope, ( "ape of, 120. 
Gordon, Charles G., English geneial, 281. 
Gorgey (ger'geh-e), Hungaiian traitor, 

285. 
Grana'da, conquest of, 99, 117. 
Grand Alliance, 186. 



INDEX. 



XIX 



Granson, battle of, 64. 

Grattan', Henry, Irish orator, 278. 

Gravelolte (grav-lof), battle of, 274. 

Gray, Thomas, English poet, 247. 

Great Britain, kingdom formed, 207. 

Greece, 291, 292. 

Greelc lire, 22. 

Gregory I. (the Great), Pope, 15. 

Gregory VII., Pope, 70. 

Greno'ble, 265. 

Grey, Lady Jane, 155, 166. 

Grouchy (groo-she'), French general, 266, 

267. 
Guelfs and Ghibellines, 73, 90. 
Guesclin (ga-klS.n'), Bertrand du, 59. 
Guido Reni (gwee'do ra'nee), 161. 
GuiMs, 109. 
Guillotine, 237. 
Guinegate, battle of, 126. 
Guiscard (ges-kar'), Robert, 92. 
Guise (gweez), Francis, Duke of, 137, 138, 

144, 146. 
Guise, Henry of, 146, 147. 
Gunpowder, 107, 118. 
Gunpowder Plot, 190. 
Gustavus Adolphus, 176, 177. 
Gutenberg (goo't6n-b6rg), 119, 
Haarlem, siege of, 140. 
Habeas Corpus Act, 203. 
Hal'ley, Edmund, astronomer, 208. 
Hamburg, 259. 
Hampden, John, 193. 
Hanover, House of, 188, 207, 226. 
Hanseatic League, 78. 
Hapsburg, House of. See Austria. 
Hargreaves, James, 250. 
Harold, King of England, 34. 
Haroun al Raschid (ha-roon' al-rash'id), 

24, 26. 
Harvey, William, English physician, 208. 
Hast'iiigs, battle of, 34. 
Hav'elock, Sir Henry, 281. 
Havre (ha'ver), 184. 
Hawkins, Sir John, 158, 159. 
Haynau (hi'now), the "Hangman," 284. 
Hebrews, the, 37, 293. 
Hegel (ha'ggl), German philosopher, 248. 
Hegi'ra, the, 20. 
Heloise (a-lo-eez'), 107. 
Helve'tius, French philosopher, 233. 
Hengist (hgug-'glst), 32. 
Henry I. of England, 34, 35. 
Henry II., 34-37. 
Henry IIL, 34, 37. 
Henry IV., 34, 60. 
Henrv V.,34, 60, 6L 
Henry VI., 34, 61-63. 
Henry VII., 149, 150. 
Henry VIII., 127, 149-154. 
Henry I. of France, 49. 
Henry II., 137, 144. 
Henry IIL, 144, 147, 148. 
Henry IV. (Navarre), 146-148. 
Henry I. of Germany, 68. 
Henry IL, 68. 
Henry IIL, 69, 70. 
Henry IV., 69, 70, 71. 
Henry V., 69, 71-73. 
Henry VI., 74. 95. 
Herschel (her'shgl), Sir "William, 249. 



High Commission Courts, English, 193. 

Hildebrand, 70. 

Hill, Rowland, 279. 

Hoche (osh), French general, 239. 

Hohenlinden (lio-Sn-Hn'den), battle of, 

253. 
Holienstaufen (ho-en-stow'fen) line, 73. 
Hohenzollern (ho-eu-tsSrgrn), 80. 
Holbein (hol'bin), Hans, 209. 
Holland, 139, 185, 197, 292. 
Holstein (hol'stin), 285. 
Holy Alliance, the, 282. 
Holy League, the, 126. 
Holy Roman Empire, the, 69, 84, 180, 

225, 282. 
Homes and home life, Anglo-Saxon, 44 ; 

English, 162 ; French, 232, 233 ; Gallic, 

66; German, 168-170; German, early, 

16 ; mediaeval, 105, 110. 
Hooker, Richard, English author, 162. 
Horace, Roman poet, 19. 
Horn, Count, Swedish general, 178. 
Hos'pitallers, the, 93, 130. 
Howard, Catharine, Queen of England, 

154. 
Howard, John, philanthropist, 250. 
Hubertsburg, Treaty of, 224. 
Huguenots, the, 144-148, 184. 
Hume, David, English historian, 248. 
Hundreil- Years' War, 54-63. 
Hungary, 68. 
Huns, the, 68. 
Huss, John, 80. 
Hussite war, 80. 
Incas, the, 122. 
Independents, the, 156, 195. 
India, 100. 
Indian Mutiny, 280. 
Inkerman', battle of, 280. 
Innocent IIL, Pope, 52, 85. 
Iniiuisitlon, the, 140, 144. 
Inscriptions, famous, 238. 
Interregnum, the Great, 75. 
Inventions. See Arts and Inventions. 
Investiture, 103 ; war of, 70, 71. 
Ireland, 38, 205, 278, 281, 282. 
Ireton, Henry, English, general, 196. 
Isabella of Castile, 98. 
Italian Renaissance, 89. 
Italy, 14, 26, 84-91, 124-130, 285-290. 
Ivan the Great, 214. 
Ivan the Terrible, 214. 
Ivry (ev-re'), battle of, 148. 
Jac'oblns, the, 234, 236. 
Jac'obites, plots of the, 205. 
Jacquerie (zhak-re'), 58, 234. 
James I. of England, 188-191. 
James II. , 204. 
James IV. of Scotland, 150. 
James VI., 157. 
Jan'izaries, 109. 
Japan, 294-:^96. 
Jeanne d'Arc, 61, 62. 
Jefferson, Thomas, 234. 
Jemmapes (zha-map'), battle of, 237. 
Jena (ya'na), battle of, 258. 
Jerome, 15. 
Jerusalem, 21, 94, 100. 
Jesuit Order, 172. 
Jews, the. See Hebrews. 



XX 



INDEX. 



John of Barneveld, 143. 

John, King of England, 37. 

John (the Good), King of France, 56, 58. 

John II. of Portugal, 120. 

Johnson, Samuel, 247. 

J on son, Ben, 162, 207. 

Josephine, wife of Napoleon, 241, 256, 

261. 
Joubert (zhoo-ber'), French general, 244. 
Jourdan (zhoor-don'), French general, 

239. 
Journalism established, 247. 
Junot (zhii-no'), Marshal of France, 259. 
Justinian, 13, 14. 
Kant, Iniinanuel, 248. 
Kaunitz (kow'nits), 223. 
Kellernian, Duke de, 253. 
Kepler, German astronomer, 208, 262. 
Kbadijah (ka-dee'ja), 20. 
Klop'stock, German poet, 248. 
Knight, the mediajval, 104, 110, 119. 
Knights Hospitallers and Templars, 54, 

93 
Knights of St. John, 130. 
Knox, John, Scotcli reformer, 157. 
Kolin, battle of, 224. 
Koran, the, 21. 

Koscius'ko, Polish patriot, 219. 
Kossuth (kosh'oot), 284. 
Ku'nersdorf, battle of, 224. 
Ladies' Peace, the, 130, 135. 
La Fayette, Marquis de, 269. 
La Fontaine', 207. 
Lamarck', French naturalist, 249. 
Lancaster, House of, 34. 
Laplace (la-plas'), 249. 
Las Casas (las ka'sas), 123. 
Lat'imer, Hugh, 154. 
Laud (lawd), Archbishop, 192, 20L 
La Vendue (la von-da'), 237, 239. 
Law, Jchn, 230. 
Lawfelt, battle of, 223. 
Lognano (lan-ya'no), battle of, 74. 
Leibnitz (ITp'nits), Baron von, 208. 
Leicester (les'ter). Earl of, lf8, 160. 
Leignitz (lig'nits), battle of, 224. 
Leipsic (lip'sik), battles of, 177. 
Lens, battle of, 179, 182. 
LeoX., sketch of, 88. 
Leopold, Duke of Austria, 82. 
Leopold, German emperor, 187. 
Lepan'to, battle of, 290. 
Lessing-, Gotthold, 180, 248. 
Leuthen (hji'ten), battle of, 224. 
Levant', 120. 

Lewes (lu'es), battle of, 38. 
Leyden (li'den), siege of, 142. 
Libraries, 19, 22, 25, 247. 
Linufe'us. 249. 
Lisbon, 120. 
Little Rome, 30. 
Livo'nia, 219. 
Livy, 19. 

Llewellyn (loo-el'in), 38. 
Locke, John. 207. 
Locomotive, the first, 279. 
Lo'di, battle of, 242. 
Loire (Iwar). capture of, 52. 
Lom'bard, Peter, 107. 
Lombards, the, 14, 86. 



London, plague and fire in, 201, 

Londonderry, besieged, 205. 

Longbows, 36, 55, 107. 

Longobards, 19. 

Long Parliament, 193. 

Lord of Misrule, 168. 

Lorraine', 29. 

Lorraine, Cardinal of, 144. 

Lothaire', 29. 

Lothaire of Italy, 69. 

Lothaire II. of Saxony, 73. 

Lotharin'gia, 29. 

Louis VII., of France, 50, 94. 

Louis VIII., 49. 

Louis IX., 53, 97. 

Louis X., 49. 

Louis XL, 63. 

Louis XII., 124. 

Louis XIII., 180, 182. 

Louis XIV., 182-188, 204, 208, 209. 

Louis XV., 223, 230, 231. 

Louis XVI., 231-237. 

Louis XVII., 237. 

Louis XVIII., 265, 266, 268. 

Louis Napoleon (Napoleon III.), 272-274. 

Louis Philippe, 269-271. 

Louvois (loo-vwa'), 183-186. 

Lowositz (16'vo-sits), battle of, 224. 

Loyola (loi-6'la), Ignatius, 172. 

Lucerne', 83. 

Lucknow, battle of, 281. 

Luneville (ILi-na-veel'), 253. 

Luther, Martin, 118, 132-134. 

Lutherans called Protestants, 135. 

Lutzen (loot'sen), battles of, 177, 264 

Luxeml)urg, 184-186. 

Lyons, 237. 

Madrid', 129. 

Magdeburg, capture of, 176. 

Magel'lan, 118, 121. 

Magen'ta, battle of, 289. 

Magna -eharta, 37. 

Magnus, Albertus, 107. 

Magyars, the, 68. 

Maintenon (man-teh-non'), Mme. de, 

184, 210. 
Malines, 126. 

Malplaquet (mal-pla-ka'), battle of, 187. 
Man'tua, 244. 
Marat (ma-ra), 234, 238. 
March, Earl of, 60, 61. 
Marc(j Bozzaris, 292. 
Maren'go, battle of, 253. 
Marjraret of Anjou, 62. 
Maria Louisa (ma-ri'a loo-ee'za), 261. 
Maria Theresa (te-ree'sa), 184, 221, 223, 

224. 
Marie Antoinette (ma-ree' 6n-twa-n6t'), 

231, 237. 
Marigna'no (ma-reen-ya'no), 126. 
Marlborough, Duke of, 187, 206. 
Marlowe, Christopher, 162. 
Marriage customs, 16, 105. 
Marseilles (mar-salz'), 237. 
Marston Moor, battle of, 195. 
Martel', Charles, 23, 186. 
Martin V., Pope, 79. 
Mary of Burgundy, 64, 81, 127, 139. 
Mary of Orange, 204, 205. 
Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots, 145, 157, 158. 



INDEX. 



XXI 



Mary Tudor, Queen of England, 1.38, ir.5. 

Maurice of Nassau, 142. 

Maurice of Saxony, 136, 137. 

Maxiniil'ian I. , 80, 124, 136, 139. 

Maximilian II., 138. 

Maximilian of Austria, 127, 139. 

Mayence (nia-ons'), 20. 

Mazarin (maz-a-reen'), Cardinal, 182. 

Mazzini (niat-see'nee), Joseph, 287. 

Mecca, 20. 

Medlseval civilization, 102-111. 

MediQe'aii age, 88. 

Medici (med'e-chee), Catharine de', 144- 

146. 
Medici, family, 88. 
Medici, Maria de', 180. 
Me]5n€h'thon, Philip, 134. 
Mentz, 119. 
Merovingian (m6r-o-vin'je-5n) Dynasty, 

Messina (m&-see'na), 288. 

Methodism, rise of, 228. 

Metric system, the, 255. 

Met'ternich, Prince, 284. 

Metz, 137, 274. 

Mexican war, the, 273. 

Mexico, 121, 122. 

Mikado (ml-ka'do), the, 292. 

Mll'an, 74, 124, 126. 

Military customs, 17, 66, 77, 106, 107, 250. 

Milton, John, 207, 208. 

Minnesingers, the, 108, 134. 

Mississippi Bubble, the, 231. 

Moguls', the Great, 100. 

Mohacs (uio-hach'), battle of, 130. 

MohSra'med, 20, 23, 111. 

Mohammed II., 101. 290. 

Mohammedanism, 20. 

Molifere (mo-le-6r'), 207. 

Molt'ke, Count von, 285. 

Monasteries, suppression of, 152. 

Montezumas, the, 121. 

Montfort, Simon de, 38 ; father of, 52. 

Montlh^ry (mon-la-ree'), 104. 

Montene'gro, 291. 

Montmoren'gi, Constable of France. 144. 

Moore, Sir John, Scotch general, 260. 

Moore, Thomas, Irish poet, 249. 

Moors, the, 22, 98. 

Morat', battle of, 64. 

More, Sir Thomas, English statesman, 

Moreau (mo-ro'), French general, 239 
253. 

MSrgar'ten, battle of, 82. 

Morton's fork, 149. 

Moscow (mos'ko). Napoleon at, 262, 263. 

Murat (mii-ra'), 257, 260, 263. 

Muril'lo, Spanish paintei-, 209. 

Museums, Berlin, 259; Ufflzi (Flor- 
ence), 2S9; Vatican (Rome), 118, 261. 

Nafels (na'fels), baltte of, 83. 

Na'na Sa'hib, 281. 

Nancy, battle of, 64. 

Nantes, Edict of, 148, 184. 

Napier (na'pe-ei), John, 208. 

Naples, 89, 124, 289. 

Napoleon I., 240-244, 246, 247, 253-268 
292. ' 

Napoleon III., 272-274. 



Napoleon'ic Code, 255. 

Nar'va, battle of, 217. 

Na§e'by, battle of, 195. 

Navarino (na-va-ree'no), battle of, 292. 

Navarre (nii-var'), kingdom of, 98. 

Navarre, Anthony, King of, 145. 

Navarre, Uenry of, 148. 

Nec'ker, Jacques, 2^2. 

Neerwinden (nar'vln-den), battle of, 186. 

Nelson, Admiral, 245, 257. 

Netherlands, the, 139, 292. 

Neville's Cross, battle of, 56. 

Newcom'en, Thomas, 249. 

New'foundland ceded to England, 188. 

Newton, Isaac, 208. 

Ney (iia), Marshal, 262, 266. 

Nibelungenlied (nee'be-loong-en-leed), 

108. 
Nice (nees), or Nigae'a (in Asia Minor), 

Nice (in France), 131. 

Nicholas, Czar of Russia, 280. 

Nicop'olis, l)attle of, 101. 

Niliilists in Russia, 293. 

Nimeguen (nim'a-g6n), 186. 

Noailles (nu-al'). Vise mte de, 255. 

Nonconformists, 156, 200. 

Nord'lingen, battle of, 179, 182. 

Norman Conquest, ;i3, 35. 

Normans, 33, 46, 48. 

Norsemen, 48, 108, 214. 

Nortliumbeiland, Duke of, 155. 

Norway, 219. 

Nova'ra, battle of, 287. 

Gates, Titus, 202, 203. 

Odoa'ger, Patrician of Italy, 12. 

Oktai conquers Russia, 214. 

Olga, 214. 

O'niar, 21. 

Ommiades (6-mi'yads), 24. 

Orange, Prince of. See William of 
Orange. 

Ordeal, the, 42. 

Orleanists, the, 270. 

Orleans, Duke of, 60, 230. 

Orleans, House of, 269. 

Orleans, siege of, 62. 

Ostrogoths, 12. 

Othuian', 100. 

Otto I. (the Great), 68. 

Oxford, University of, 228. 

Paladin, 26. 

Palat'iuate, devastation of, 186. 

Paler'mo, 289. 

Palestine, 21, 91. See Jerusalem. 

Pal'issy, 1(;2. 

Papal insignia, 15. 

Papal power, 10, 15, 26, 70-73, 79, 84, 85, 

86, 255, 288. 
Pappenheim (pap'enhini), 177. 
Paris, 2.0, 53, 107, 224, 263, 264, 265, 270 

272, 274, 27.'"', 276, 281 
Parliami'ut, Long, 193. 
Parma, Duke of, 159. 
Parnell, Charles S., 281. 
Parr, Catharine, 154. 
Pas'cal, French wiiter, 207. 
Pas€hal II., Pope, 73. 
Pas'sau, Treaty of, 137. 
Pavia (pa-vee'a), battle of, 128. 



XXll 



INDEX, 



Peace, Decree of Perpetual, 81. 

Peasants, French, 232 ; German, 77. 

Pedro the Cruel, 58. 

Peel, Robert, 279. 

Peninsular war, 259. 

Pep'in the Short, 26. 

Perry, Commodore, 29.5. 

Peru, 122. 

Peter the Great of Russia, 214-219. 

Peter the Hermit, 91. 

Peter IIL, 224. 

Pe'trar€h, 90. 

Philip Augustus, 49, 51, 94. 

Philip of Anjou, 187. 

Pliilip IV. of France, 49, 53. 

Philip VI. (Valois), 49, 55. 

Philip II. of Spain, IcS, 139, 156, 158. 

Philip III., 143. 

Philip IV., 184. 

Philip the Good (Burgundy), 61. 

Philip'pa of England, 56. 

Philosophy and philosophers, 107, 162, 

207, 233, 247. 
Pirates, 32, 33, 48, 198. 
Pisa (pee'za), 86, 162. 
Pitt, William, 228, 229. 
Pitt the Younger, 230. 
Pius II., Pope, 80. 
Pius VII., 256. 
Pius IX., 2S8. 
Pizar'ro, 122. 
Plantag'enet line, 34, 40. 
Plot, the Popish, 202. 
Poitiers (pwatl-a'), battle of, 56. 
Poland, invasion of, 217 ; partition of, 

220. 
Polignac (po-leen-yak'). Cardinal de, 210. 
Pomera'nia, 179. 
Pompadour, Madame de, 231. 
Ponce de Leon (pon'tha da la-on'), 121. 
Poniatowski (po-ne-a-t6v'!5kee), 219. 
Pontecorvo (p6n-ta-k6r'vo), 257. 
Pope, Alexander, English poet, 247. 
Popes, power of the. See Papal Power. 
Portugal, 98, 143, 259. 
Portuguese, 85, 120, 121, 165, 295. 
Postage, cheap, 279. 
Pragmatic Sanction, the, 86, 221. 
Prague, 79, 179, 285. 
Pres'burg, Treaty of, 257. 
Presbyterians and Independent?, 195. 
Pride's Purge, 196. 

Priestley, Joseph, English chemist, 249. 
Printing, 119, 133, 169, 217, 247, 251, 259. 
Protectorate, the English, 198. 
Protestants named, 135. 
Prussia, 220-225, 258, 264, 266, 274, 284, 

285, 286. 
Pul'towa, 218. 
Punishments, 42, 77, 111, 167, 169, 193, 

250. 
Puritans, 156, 193, 194-200. 
Pym, .John, 194, 
Pyramids, battle of, 245. 
Pyr'enee§, Peace of, 183. 
Quakeis. See Friends. 
Queen Anne's War, 187. 
Racine (ra-seen'), 207. 
Radicals, the, 194. 
Raleigh, Sir Walter, 159, 162. 



Ramillies (ra-mee-yee'), battle of, 187. 

Raphael (rafa-eD, 89, 118, 161. 

Ras'tadt, Treaty of, 184, 187. 

Rauconx (ro-koo'), battle of, 223. 

Ravaillac (ra-val-yak'), 148. 

Ravenna, Exarchs of, 14. 

Raymond, Count, 52. 

Reaumur (ra-o-mtir'), 249. 

Reformation, 118, 133, 138, 144, 152. 

Reforms, English, 277-279, 281 ; French, 
235; Hungarian, 286; Italian, 287; 
Japanese, 295 ; Prussian, 284 ; Rus- 
sian, 217, 293 ; Turkish, 291. 

Reign of Teiror, 237. 

Rem'brandt, Dutch painter, 209. 

Renaissance (re-na-sans'), 89, 118. 

Rend (re-na'), death of, 124. 

Republic, Batavian, 239; French, 237, 
•272, 274 ; Helvetic, 245 ; Italian cities, 
88, 111 ; Roman, 245. 

Republicans in France, 270. 

Restoration, English, 200; French, 265, 
268. 

Revival of Learning, 118, 161. 

Revolution, American, 229; English, 
204 ; French, 229-234, 247, 271 ; Ger- 
man, 283; Greek, 292; Hungarian, 
284 ; Italian, 287 ; Poland, 219. 

Rhen'ish League, 78. 

Richard I. (Coeur de Lion), 34, 94, 95. 

Richard II., 59, 60. 

Richard III., 40, 63. 

Richardson, Samuel, English novelist, 
247. 

Richelieu (resh'eh-loo), Cardinal de, 181. 

Ridley, Bishop, 154. 

Rienzi (re-en'zee), 90. 

Rights, English Bill of, 204 ; petition for 
English, 192. 

Rivoli (ree'vo-lee), battle of, 244. 

Rizzio (rit'se-o), 157. 

Robert of Normandy, 92. 

Robertson, William, 248. 

Robespierre (ro'bes-peer), 234, 238, 239. 

Robsart, Amy, 160. 

Rochelle (ro-shel'). La, 181. 

Rocroi (ro-krwa'), battle of, 179, 182. 

Roland the Paladin, 26. 

Rollo the Viking, 48. 

Rome, 124, 129, 242, 288, 290. 

Roses, Wars of, 10, 40, 63. 

Rosetta stone, 245. 

Ross'biieh, battle of, 224. 

Rouen (roo-6n'), capture of, 61. 

Rouma'nia, 291. 

Roundheads, the, 194. 

Rousseau (roo-so'), 233, 248. 

Roussillon (roo-seel-von'), 183. 

Rubens, Peter Paul, 209. 

Rudolf of Hapsburg, 76, 78, 81. 

Rudolph II. of Austria, 138. 

Rump Parliament, the, 197. 

Ptun'nymede, 36. 

Ru'peit, Prince, 194, 195. 

Ruric founds Russia, 214. 

Russell, Lord John, 278. 

Russell, Lord William, 203. 

Russia, 214, 218, 259, 262, 280, 293. 

Ruth'erford, Daniel, 249. 

Rye House Plot, 203. 



INDEX. 



XXlll 



Ily§'wick, Treaty of, 184, 187, 

Sacrifices, human, 19. 

Sado'wa, battle of, 285. 

Sa'gag, the Scandinavian, 108. 

St. Augustine, 33. 

St. Bartholomew, massacre of, 147. 

St. Germain, 146. 

St. Louis. See Louis IX. of France. 

St. Petersburg founded, 218. 

St. Quentin (s5n koii-tan'), battle of, 138. 

Sal'adin captures Jerusalem, 94. 

Salisbury (savvlz'ber-i). Lord, 281. 

Sal va' tor Rosa, 209. 

Sar'agens, the. See Arabs. 

Sardinia, 287-289. 

Sar'to, Andrea del, 161, 

Savelli (sa-vel'ee), 90. 

Savoy, Duke of, 198. 

Saxe, Marshal, 223. 

Saxons in Germany, 67. ^ee Anglo-Saxon. 

Scenes in real life, 46, 168. 

Schel'ling, 248. 

Schil'ler, 248. 

Schism (sizm), the Great, 79, 86. 

Schleswig-Holstein, 285. 

Schoolmen, the, 107. 

Science, 1(>2, 208, 249. 

Scotland, 39, 157, 197, 201. 

Scott, Sir Walter, 249. 

Sebasto'pol, siege of, 280. 

Sedan (se-don'), battle of, 274. 

Se'lim I., 290. 

Sem'pach, battle of, 82. 

Separatists, the English, 156. 

Ser'via, 291. 

Seven- Months' War. 273. 

Seven- Weeks' War, 285. 

Seven-Years' War, 223, 227. 

S^vign^ (sa-ven-ya'), Madame de, 207. 

Seymour (see'mQr), Jane, 154. 

Shakspere, William, 162, 207. 

Shelley, Percy Bysshe (blsh), 249. 

Ship-money, 193. 

Ships and boats, 197. 

Sho'guu, the Japanese, 294. 

Siberia, 214, 294. 

Sicilian Vespers, 89. 

Sicily, 89, 288. 

Sidney, Algernon, 203. 

Sidney, Philip, 1.58, 162. 

Sig'ismund of Hungary, 79, 80. 

Sile'sia, 221, 224. 

Silk, 14. 

Slaves and slavery, 13, 16, 41, 46. 96, 100. 

123, 131, 278. 
Sluys (slois), battle of, 55. 
Smalcaldic League, 136 ; war, 136. 
Smith, Sidney, 245. 
Smol'lett, Tobias, 247. 
Sobieski (so-be-es'kee), 186. 
Solferino (sol-fa-ree'no), battle of, 289. 
Sol'yman, 130, 136, 290. 
Somerset (sum'er-set), Duke of, 154, 155. 
Sophia of Russia, 215. 
South'ey, Robert, 249. 
South America, 298. 
South Sea Scheme, 226. 
Spain, 13, 22, 122, 127-138, 140, 143, 158, 

187, 259-261, 274, 298. 
Spenser, Edmund, 162. 



Spinoza (spe-no'za), 208. 
Spurs, battle of the, 126, 150. 
Star Chamber Court, 193. 
States- System, 120. 

Statues, famous : Apollo Belvidere, 269 ; 
Bronze Horses of Venice, 269 ; Venus 
de' Medici, 269. 
Steamships, 250. 
Steele, Richard, 247. 
Stein'kirk, battle of, 186. 
Stephenson, George, 279. 
Stratford, Earl of, 192. 
Strasburg, 20, 186. 
Stuart rule in England, 188. 
Stylus, niediteva], 108. 
Sully, 148, 188. 
Sumptuary Laws, 110. 
Supremacy, Act of, 156 ; oath of, 152. 
Sweden, 176-179, 217, 218, 223, 258, 264. 
Swift, Jonathan, 247. 
Switzerland, 81-83 ; Reformation in, 135. 
Syl'vius (Pope Pius II. ), 80. 
Syria, 21. 

Tabor, Mount, battle of, 246. 
Talavera (ta-la-va'-ia), battle of, 262. 
Talbot, English captain, 63. 
Tal'ley rand, -257. 
Tamerlane', 100. 
Tan'cred, 92. 
Taylor, Jeremy, 207. 
Tea introduced into England, 166. 
Tell, William, 82. 
Templars. See Knights Hospitallers and 

Templars. 
Test Act, the, 202. 
The'aters, 30, 166. 
Theod'oric, 12. 
Ther'mae, Roman, 13. 
Thermop'ylse, 82. 
Thiers (te-er'>, 274, 276. 
Thirty- Years' War, 174 ; effect of, 179. 
Thompson, James, 247. 
Thor, 19. 

Tiers-dtat (teerz-a-ta'), 53, 234. 
Til'ly, Count, 176, 177. 
Til'sit, 259. 

Timour'. See Tamerlane. 
Titian (tish'an), 161. 
Ti'tus, Roman emperor, 14. 
Tole'do, 25. 

Torgau (tor'gow), battle of, 224. 
Tories, 194, 203, 206, 226, 2vi9, 230. 
Torricelli (tor-re-chel'lee), 208. 
Tor'stenson, Swedish general, 178. 
Toul (tool), seized by Henry II., 137. 
Toulon (too-lon'), 184, 237. 
Touraine (too-ran'), 52. 
Tour'naments, 106. 
Tours (toor), battle of, 22. 
Tower of London, 155, 201. 
Trafalgar (traf-al-gar'), battle of, 257. 
Trent, Council of, 136. 
Tribonian Code, 14. 
Triple Alliance, 184 ; League, 292. 
Trou'badours, the, 107. 
Trouvferes (troo-ver'), the, 108. 
Troyes (trwa), 61. 
Truce of God, 70. 
Tudor line, 40 ; rule, 149-161. 
Tunis, 131. 



XXIV 



INDEX. 



Tuieniie (tu-ren'), 179, 182, 184, 185, 186. 

Turgot (tiir-go'), French minister, 232. 

Turlcs, 24, 100, 101, 130, 131, 180, 280, 290, 
292. 

Tycoon', the, 294. 

Tyler, Wat, 60. 

Tyndale, William, 153. 

Ulm (oolm), battle of, 256. 

Uniformity, Act of, 156. 

Universities, Colleges, and Schools : Ara- 
bian, 24 ; Charlemagne's, 30, 31 ; Eng- 
lish, 153, 161, 166, 207, 2U9, 247, 251, 282 ; 
French, 148, 184, 186, 275, 282; Ger- 
man, 169, 170-172 ; Japanese, 295 ; me- 
diaeval, 107 ; Roman, 12 ; Russian, 217, 
293 ; Spanish, 122 ; Swedish, 217 ; 15th 
century, 118 ; 16th century, 166. 

Ur'ban II., Pope, 92. 

U'treeht. 142, 184, 187, 206. 

Valdez (val'deth) at Leyden, 142. 

Val'my, battle of, 236. 

Valois' (val-wa') line, 52, 54; ends, 148. 

Vandals, 12, 

Van Dycli', Flemish painter, 209. 

Van Tromp, 197. 

Vasco da Gama (vas'lio da ga'ma), 88, 120. 

Vassy (vas-see'), massacre at, 146. 

Vauban (vo-l)on'), 183, 185. 

Vaudois (vo-dwa'), the, 144. 

Velasquez (va-las'Jieth), 209. 

Venice, 87, 124. 

Verdun', seizure of, 137; Treaty of, 29. 

Vermandois (ver-man-dvva'), 52. 

Vero'na, 243. 

Veronese (va-ro-na'za), Paul, 161. 

Versailles (ver-salz'), ISO, 211. 

Vesa'lius, 162. 

Vespucci (v6s-poot'chee), Americus, 121. 

Victor Emmanuel II, of Italy, 289. 

Victor Emmanuel of Sardinia, 287. 

Victoria, 277, 281. 

Vienna, 130, 136, 186, 256, 261, 266, 282. 

Villafranca (veel-ya-fran'Iia), Peace of, 
289. 

Vinci (vin'chee), Leonardo da, 89, 161. 

Virgil, 19, 

Virginia, Colony of, 159. 

Vi§'igoths, 12. 

Volta, 249. 

Voltaire (vol-ter'), 248. 

Wa'gram, battle of, 260. 

Wales, 32, 38 ; first Prince of, 39. 



Wallace, William, 39, 

Wallenstein (wol'en-stin), 175, 176, 177, 

178. 
Wal'pole, Robert, 227, 
Wal'singham, Francis, 156. 
Walter the Penniless, 92. 
Wal'ton, Izaak, 207. 
War of 1812, the, 229. 
Warsaw, 220. 

Warwick (wor'ik). Earl of, 63. 
Waterloo', battle of, 266. 
Watt, James, 249, 
Weinsberg (vins'berg), siege of, 73. 
Weissenburg (vi'sen-boorg), battle of, 

274. 
Wellesley (welz'll), Sir Arthur, 260, 262, 

2H6. 
Wellington, Duke of. See Wellesley. 
Weslevs (wgs'ltz), the, 228, 
Westp'ha'lia, 83, 143, 179, 180, 182. 
Whigs. 194, 203, 206, 226, 229, 230. 
Whitefield (hwit'feeld), George, 228, 
Whitney, Eli, 250. 

William I. (the Conqueror), 34, 35, 36. 
William III. of Orange, 185, 186, 204, 205. 
William IV., 277. 

William I., Emperor of Germany, 286, 
William II., 286, 
William the Silent, 140, 142. 
Winckelmann (vink'el-man), 248. 
Winkelried (vink'el-reet), Arnold von, 83, 
Winter King, the, 174. 
Wo'den, 18. 

Wolsey (wool'z!), Thomas, 150-152. 
Worcester (woos'ter), battle of, 197. 
Wordsworth, William, 249, 
World's Fair, London, 280 ; Paris, 273. 
Worms, 26 ; Diet of, 73, 80, 134. 
Wren, Sir Christopher, 209. 
Writing materials, 19, 31, 43, 108. 
Wui'mser (voorm'zer), 243. 
Wiirtemberg (vlir'tem-berg), 286. 
Wy cliff c (wik'llf), John, 80. 
Xavier (zav'I-er), Francis, 295. 
York, House of, 34, 40, 63. 
Zis'ka, Hussite leader, 80. 
Zollverein (tsol'fe-rin), the German, 283. 
Zorn'dorf, battle of, 224. 
Zoroas'ter, 22. 
Zut'phen, battle of, 158. 
Zwingle (tsving'lee), Ulrieh, 135. 



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